SNT  READING 


AND  GERMANE 


II 


Silent    Reading 


A  Handbook  for  Teachers 


CHARLES  E.   GERMANE,  Ph.  D. 

DEAN   OF   THE   COLLEGE   OF  EDUCATION 

DES  MOINES  UNIVERSITY 

EDITH  GAYTON  GERMANE,  M.  A. 

TEACHER  OF  READING 
DES  MOINES  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 

ROW,  PETERSON  AND  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT  1922 
ROW,  PETERSON 
AND  COMPANY 


TO 

ERNEST  HORN 

IN  GRATEFUL,  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
OF  OUR  INDEBTEDNESS  TO  HIM 


601394 


PEEFACE 

Much  experience  in  high-school,  normal-college,  and 
university  classrooms  has  convinced  the  authors  that 
the  following  statements  may  be  verified  in  any  school : 

1.  The  chief  cause  of  failure  among  first  and  sec- 
ond-year students  is  their  inability  to  employ  ef- 
fective methods  of  study. 

2.  By  using  proper  methods  of  training  it  is  pos- 
sible to  improve  the  study  habits  of  many  such 
students  within  a  short  time. 

During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  much  in- 
vestigation designed  to  discover  the  best  method  of  read- 
ing effectively,  because  the  ability  to  do  that  lies  at 
the  bottom  of  how  to  study.  Such  investigations  have 
been  concerned  with  the  physiological  and  psychological 
aspects  of  the  problem,  as  well  as  with  the  pedagogical 
principles.  As  a  result  of  this  increased  interest  in 
the  subject,  administrative  officers  in  city  school  sys- 
tems are  more  closely  supervising  the  methods  employed 
to  teach  reading,  and  they  are  also  more  closely  scru- 
tinizing the  results  obtained.  Reading  circle  boards  are 
also  interesting  themselves  in  literature  that  treats  of 
the  teaching  of  reading. 

Because  the  reports  of  experiments  in  this  field  of 
education  are  usually  only  to  be  found  in  widely  scat- 

5 


6  PREFACE 

tered  sources,  and  when  found  prove  to  be  of  a  highly 
technical  nature,  largely  statistical,  it  is  difficult  for 
the  average  teacher  to  obtain  or  to  use  the  conclusions 
of  investigators.  To  remedy  this  situation  by  summa- 
rizing all  that  is  best  and  most  practical  in  the  many 
modern  investigations,  and  to  make  the  findings  avail- 
able to  teachers  everywhere,  has  prompted  the  authors 
to  undertake  this  work. 

The  authors  are  especially  indebted  to  Dr.  Ernest 
Horn,  Professor  of  Education  and  Director  of  the  Ele- 
mentary Experimental  School  at  the  State  University 
of  Iowa  for  the  classification  of  silent-reading  prob- 
lems under  four  headings:  Speed,  Comprehension,  Or- 
ganization, and  Retention.  It  was  his  vision  of  the 
scope  of  the  field  of  reading,  and  his  enthusiasm  and 
encouragement  that  made  this  book  a  possibility. 

They  are  also  indebted  to  Dr.  Gerald  A.  Yoakam, 
Director  of  Teacher  Training  in  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Kearney,  Nebraska,  for  the  use  of  some  of 
his  data,  and  to  Miss  Kate  Kelly,  Primary  Supervisor 
of  the  Des  Moines  Public  Schools,  for  reading  the 
manuscript  and  offering  constructive  criticisms.  To 
many  heads  of  school  systems  in  Iowa  who  permitted 
the  carrying  out  of  experiments  the  authors  are  grate- 
ful, and  especially  so  to  Misses  Post,  Swemm,  and 
Starr,  principals  of  schools  in  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 

DES  MOINES  UNIVERSITY 

DES  MOINES,  IOWA  E.  Q.  G. 

OCTOBER  22.  1922 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  ONE 
CHAPTER  PAQK 

I.  SILENT  OB  ORAL  READING 11 

II.  SPEED   IN   READING 

III.  DEVELOPING  THE  ABILITY  TO  COMPREHEND 45 

IV.  DEVELOPING  THE  ABILITY  TO  ORGANIZE 68 

V.  RETENTION    86 

VI.     QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  READING 100 

VII.     REMEDIAL  WORK  IN  READING 115 

VIII.     REMEDIAL  WORK  IN  READING  (Continued) 143 

IX.    MEASURING  COMPREHENSION  AND  RETENTION 165 

X.    MATERIAL  FOR  SILENT-READING  PURPOSES 186 

PART  TWO 

XI.     SILENT  READING  IN  GRADES  I  AND  II 205 

XII.     SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  FOR  GRADES  I  AND  II 234 

XIII.  SILENT  READING  IN  GRADES  III  AND  IV 259 

XIV.  SILENT  READING  IN  GRADES  V  AND  VI 280 

XV.     SILENT  READING  IN  GRADES  VII  AND  VIII 297 

XVI.     MOTIVATION  OF  DRILL  WORK  IN  READING 333 

APPENDIX 

A.  PAMPHLETS    SUITABLE    FOR    USE    AS    READING 

MATERIAL   357 

B.  BOOKS   SUGGESTED  FOR  USE  IN   GRADES   I,    II, 

AND   III    358 

C.  BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR  USE  IN  GRADES  IV  AND 

V    363 

D.  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING  MATERIAL  FOR  GRADES 

IV    TO   VIII 369 

E.  LITERARY   SELECTIONS:      FOR  BOYS  AND  GIRLS 

FROM  10  TO  15  YEARS  OF  AGE 373 

F.  LIST  OF  PUBLISHERS 376 

INDEX    .  3™ 


PART  ONE 


CHAPTER   I 
SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING 

Importance  of  silent  reading.  The  importance  of 
teaching  pupils  to  read  effectively  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated, since  reading  is  the  key  to  all  subject-mat- 
ter. The  pupil's  progress  in  school  depends  largely 
upon  the  speed  and  accuracy  with  which  he  can  get 
the  thought  from  the  printed  page.  We  say  that  he 
is  good  in  geography,  history,  science,  or  mathematics 
if  he  can  quickly  grasp  the  important  ideas  from  a 
mass  of  details,  and  if  he  can  organize  and  retain  those 
essentials. 

Judging  from  the  time  allotment  accorded  reading 
in  the  grades,  it  is  evident  that  the  importance  of  this 
subject  has  been  recognized.  In  fact,  an  examination 
of  courses  of  study  shows  that  in  the  primary  grades 
approximately  70  per  cent  of  the  time  has  been  devoted 
to  the  teaching  of  reading. 

However,  very  little  training  in  silent  reading  has 
been  given  even  in  the  intermediate  and  grammar 
grades,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  subject-mat- 
ter is  becoming  more  informational  and  definitely  or- 
ganized, and  that  success  in  its  mastery  demands  speci- 
fic training  in  how  to  study.  Until  recently  the  work 

11 


1  L>  ':!-..  j^Jt^NU"  READING 

of  the  teacher  has  usually  focused  on  oral  rather  than 
on  silent  reading;  on  expression  rather  than  on  get- 
ting, organizing,  and  retaining  ideas.  The  question 
naturally  arises,  can  this  emphasis  on  oral  reading  be 
justified  ? 

Drawbacks  of  the  oral-reading  method.  Speed  in 
reading  necessitates  wide  perception-units,  that  is, 
seeing  groups  of  words  instead  of  single  words.  Much 
oral  reading  for  beginners  tends  to  make  the  child 
word  conscious  and  consequently  develops  motor 
habits  of  narrow  eye-span.  Dr.  Schmidt  says  "the 
rate  of  oral  reading,  although  subject  to  considerable 
variation,  is  confined  within  relatively  narrow  limits 
because  of  its  dependence  upon  the  physiological 
mechanism  involved  in  vocalization."1 

A  pupil's  ability  to  read  may  well  be  measured  by 
the  number  of  thought  units  which  he  is  able  to  recog- 
nize in  a  given  time.  Hence,  flash-card  exercises  and 
other  silent-reading  devices  which  emphasize  getting 
the  idea  are  really  of  intrinsic  value.  They  tend  to 
develop  good  motor  habits  as  well  as  attentive,  pur- 
poseful reading  habits.  We  have  too  long  been  read- 
ing "from  the  nose  down"  rather  than  "from  the 
nose  up." 

Those  who  maintain  that  oral  reading  is  the  natural 
method  for  beginners  believe  that  the  lip-movements 
and  inner  speech  of  silent  reading  are  reflex  actions, 

'Schmidt.  W.  A.  "An  experimental  study  in  the  psychology 
of  reading1."  Supplementary  Educational  Monograph,  Vol.  1.  X". 
2,  University  of  Chicago  Press.  Chicago,  1917. 


SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING 


13 


the  physiological  tendency,  to  which  is  inherited. 
Quantz  believes  that  inner  speech  or  articulation  is  an 
inherited  tendency.  He  says  "it  is  not  second  nature, 
but  inherently  first  nature;  not  something  to  be 
unlearned,  but  to  be  outgrown. m  Other  investigators 
maintain  that  the  lip-movements  and  articulation  of 
silent  reading  are  acquired.  In  O'Brien's  judgment, 
the  explanation  of  the  tendency  to  articulate  when 
reading  is  to  be  found  "not  in  the  list  of  inherited 
tendencies  or  connate  reflexes,  but  in  the  acquired  habits 
of  the  individual."2  According  to  him,  the  tendency 
to  lip-movement  and  vocalization  is  built  up  by  the 
methods  of  teaching  reading. 

Pintner  does  not  believe  that  articulation  is  neces- 
sary, even  though  it  may  be  a  universal  habit.  As  a 
result  of  one  of  his  experiments  he  concludes  "that 
articulation  during  the  reading  process  is  a  habit  which 
is  not  necessary  for  that  purpose,  that  reading  with- 
out articulation  sacrifices  nothing  in  the  process  of 
thought-getting, "  and  "that  practice  in  reading  with- 
out articulation  tends  to  reduce  the  time  involved  in 
the  process."3  Schmidt  further  confirms  the  opinion 
of  Pintner  when  he  says: 

It  is  quite  possible,  too,  that  if  training  in  oral  read- 
ing were  discontinued  at  an  early  stage,  and  training 

Quantz,  J.  O.  "Problems  in  the  psychology  of  reading."  Psy- 
chological Review:  Monograph  Supplement,  Vol.  2,  No.  1,  (Decem- 
ber) 1897. 

2O'Brien,  John  A.  Silent  Reading.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City,  1921. 

3Pintner,  Rudolph.  "Inner  speech  during  silent  reading."  Psy- 
chological Review,  Vol.  20,  (January)  1915. 


14  SILENT  READING 

in  rapid  silent  reading  were  stressed,  the  tendencies 
toward  inner  speech  might  be  greatly  reduced  and  vis- 
ualization cultivated,  at  least  in  part.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  we  appear  to  have  the  ability  to  take  in  all  kinds 
of  situations  visually  without  speech  accompaniments.1 

The  problem  for  the  learner.  Thus  it  seems  that 
the  vital  problem  for  the  learner  is  to  recognize  the 
symbol  and  immediately  to  associate  it  with  that  for 
which  it  stands.  For  example,  the  teacher  writes  the 
word  "run"  on  the  blackboard.  Her  chief  concern 
is  that  the  child  may  associate  the  symbol  "run"  with 
the  activity;  the  word  need  not  be  spoken.  Why 
should  it  be,  since  speaking  it  requires  time  and  is 
an  unnecessary  step?  The  child  is  capable  of  recog- 
nizing many  situations  both  in  and  out  of  school  to 
which  he  makes  no  vocal  response. 

But  why  should  90  per  cent  of  the  teacher's  time 
in  the  reading  period  be  spent  in  teaching  children  to 
read  orally,  when  90  per  cent  of  their  reading  must 
necessarily  be  silent  both  in  school  and  out?  Is  it 
fair  to  have  the  child  acquire  attitudes  toward  a  sub- 
ject and  to  form  habits  and  develop  skill  for  which 
he  will  have  little  use  either  in  school  or  out  of  it? 
The  habits  formed  in  oral  reading  may  be  a  positive 
hindrance  to  the  acquirement  of  speed  and  compre- 
hension in  silent  reading.  This  contention  is  con- 
firmed by  Dearborn,  who  says  that  "the  effect  of 
articulating  is  to  decrease  ordinarily  the  span  of 

Schmidt,  W.  A.  "An  experimental  study  In  the  psychology 
of  reading."  Supplementary  Educational  Monograph,  vol.  1,  No. 
2,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  1917. 


SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING  15 

attention,"1  and  consequently  retard  the  rate  of  read- 
ing. In  general  we  have  eliminated  oral  spelling  from 
the  school  program,  not  only  for  psychological  reasons 
but  also  for  sociological  ones.  We  say  it  does  not 
function  in  life's  activities.  "Why  then  should  we  dis- 
criminate in  favor  of  oral  reading  and  retain  it,  unless 
there  is  a  need  for  it  as  such. 

Values  of  oral  reading.  One  should  not  infer, 
however,  that  oral  reading  has  no  place  on  the  school 
program.  It  is  certainly  of  importance.  Few  arts  are 
more  prized  than  that  of  being  able  to  read  and  to 
speak  with  clear  enunciation,  distinct  articulation, 
correct  pronunciation,  and  pleasing  cadence..  But 
would  not  courses  in  literature,  oral  English,  public 
speaking  and  dramatics  offer  ideal  opportunities  for 
training  in  this  art?  And  why  should  we  not  stress 
training  in  pronunciation,  enunciation,  articulation, 
and  the  other  factors  of  good  speech,  in  all  schoolroom 
activities?  It  is  not  enough  to  drill  on  these  things 
for  twenty  minutes  a  day  in  one  class,  and  neglect 
them  in  all  others. 

Oral  rendition  of  literature.  Good  oral  rendition 
greatly  enhances  the  charm  of  certain  poems  and 
prose  passages  and  also  gives  them  greater  depth  of 
meaning.  Indeed,  one  does  not  recognize  the  aesthetic 
appeal  and  the  emotional  significance  of  much  choice 
literature  until  one  reads  it  aloud.  Such  values  as 

Dearborn,  W.  R  "The  psychology  of  reading."  Columbia 
University  Contributions  to  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  Vol.  14, 
No.  1,  1906. 


16  SILENT  READING 

are  inherent  in  word  imagery,  euphony,  meter,  and 
tone  cannot  have  the  fullest  significance  nor  be  fully 
appreciated  unless  the  selections  are  read  well  orally, 
as  the  following  selections  show. 

He  clasps  the  crag  with  hooked  hands; 
Close  to  the  sun  in  lonely  lands, 
Ring'd  with  the  azure  world,  he  stands. 

The  wrinkled  sea  beneath  him  crawls; 
He  watches  from  his  mountain  walls, 
And  like  a  thunderbolt  he  falls. 

TENNYSON:     The  Eagle. 


For  the  moon  never  beams  without  bringing 

Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee; 
And  the  stars  never  rise  but  I  see  the  bright  r. 

Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee; 
And  so,  all  the  night-tide,  I  lie  down  by  the  side 
Of  my  darling,  my  darling,  my  life  and  my  bride, 

In  her  sepulchre  there  by  the  sea  — 

In  her  tomb  by  the  side  of  the  sea. 

POE:     Annabel  Lee. 

On  Linden,  when  the  sun  was  low, 
All  bloodless  lay  the  untrodden  snow, 
And  dark  as  winter  was  the  flow 
Of  Iser,  rolling  rapidly. 

But  Linden  saw  another  sight, 
When  the  drum  beat,  at  dead  of  night, 
Commanding  fires  of  death  to  light 
The  darkness  of  her  scenery. 


SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING  yy 

By  torch  and  trumpet  fast  array  'd, 
Each  horseman  drew  his  battle  blade, 
And  furious  every  charger  neigh 'd 
To  join  the  dreadful  revelry. 

Then  shook  the  hills,  with  thunder  riven, 
Then  rushed  the  steed  to  battle  driven, 
And  louder  than  the  bolts  of  heaven 
Far  flashed  the  red  artillery. 

CAMPBELL:  Hohenlinden. 

I  impeach  Warren.  Hastings  of  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors.  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the 
Commons  of  Great  Britain  in  Parliament  assembled. 
whose  parliamentary  trust  he  has  betrayed.  I  impeach 
him  in  the  name  of  all  the  Commons  of  Great  Britain, 
whose  national  character  he  has  dishonored.  I  im- 
peach him  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  India,  whose 
laws,  rights,  and  liberties  he  has  subverted,  whose 
properties  he  has  destroyed,  whose  country  he  has  laid 
waste  and  desolate.  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  and 
by  virtue  of  those  eternal  laws  of  justice  which  he 
has  violated.  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  human 
nature  itself,  which  he  has  cruelly  outraged,  injured, 
and  oppressed  in  both  sexes,  in  every  age,  rank,  situ- 
ation, and  condition  of  life. 

BURKE  :    Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings. 

It  is  evident  that  the  ability  to  read  well  orally  has 
an  important  value  that  should  be  made  available  to 
every  child.  Any  plan  or  method  which  gives  train- 
ing in  correct  pronunciation,  distinct  articulation, 
clear  enunciation,  and  the  pleasing,  effective  use  of 
one's  language  certainly  performs  a  valuable  service. 


18  SILENT  READING 

To  be  appreciated,  the  best  literature  must  be  read 
well  orally.  Rhythm  and  word  imagery  demand  it, 
as  the  above  selections  show.  The  famous  passages 
of  literature  must  be  rendered  orally  if  one  is  to  feel 
the  passion  of  the  author  or  appreciate  the  grandeur 
of  his  ideas.  The  oral  reading  of  such  selections  gives 
the  child  a  keen  sense  of  enjoyment,  it  enables  him 
to  express  his  aesthetic  emotions.  Training  the  voice 
to  express  man's  finer  feelings  is  an  important  aim 
of  work  in  oral  reading.  Although  most  of  the 
reading  period  is  devoted  to  oral  reading,  the  great 
majority  of  pupils  who  graduate  from  the  elementary 
and  high  schools  cannot  read  well  orally  because  they 
have  not  learned  to  think  and  feel  with  the  author. 

Methods  of  teaching  oral  reading.  The  chief  cause 
of  this  unsatisfactory  condition  is  undoubtedly  the 
method  of  presenting  the  reading  material.  At  pres- 
ent there  are  two  outstanding  methods  of  teaching 
oral  reading,  the  principles  of  which  are  diametrically 
opposed.  Adherents  of  the  old  school  believe  that  an 
appreciation  of  poetry  is  best  developed  by  the 
detailed  analysis  of  a  few  choice  poems.  They  argue 
that  such  treatment  gives  the  student  a  working 
method  and  thus  develops  an  interpretative  and 
appreciative  attitude  toward  good  literature.  Adhe- 
rents of  the  new  school  strongly  condemn  such  pro- 
cedure. They  argue  that  the  appreciation  of  poetry 
comes  from  extensive  reading  carried  on  as  a  leisure 
activity  for  the  mere  joy  to  be  found  in  it. 


SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING 


19 


In  the  first  instance,  we  find  that  in  order  to  insure 
comprehension  a  poem  is  studied  line  by  line,  ana- 
lyzed, and  dissected  until  its  unity  is  destroyed  and 
the  selection  is  robbed  of  all  its  beauty.  As  a  conse- 
quence pupils  often  come  to  dislike  poetry  and  seldom 
read  it  either  orally  or  silently  except  as  a  required 
task.  In  the  second  instance,  the  radical  opponents  of 
the  former  method  claim  that  appreciation  comes  not 
from  the  intensive  study  of  a  few  poems,  but  from 
reading  much  poetry.  They  take  for  granted  that 
pupils  are  capable  of  comprehending  a  poem  and  in- 
terpreting it  without  other  study  than  that  furnished 
by  a  leisurely  oral  reading. 

A  combination  method.  Possibly  these  methods 
are  extreme.  Critics  agree  that  the  first  requires 
overanalysis,  that  the  second  does  not  require  suf- 
ficient study  to  insure  apprehension,  comprehension, 
and  appreciation.  It  is  therefore  likely  that  the  best 
results  might  be  obtained  by  combining  the  commend- 
able features  of  both.  The  teacher  should  use  her 
judgment  in  selecting  suitable  methods. 

Although  it  would  not  be  desirable  to  impose  an 
extreme  form  of  the  first  method  upon  the  pupils,  yet 
poetry  must  be  understood  to  be  enjoyed,  and  conse- 
quently some  analysis  is  necessary.  It  is  surely  pos- 
sible to  ask  such  questions  about  a  poem  as  will  aid 
in  understanding  it,  and  at  the  same  time  enhance  its 
beauty  for  the  reader.  Take,  for  example,  the  little 
stanza : 


20  SILENT  READING 

Oh,  the  sunshine  told  the  bluebird, 
And  the  bluebird  told  the  brook, 
That  the  dandelions  were  peeping 
In  the  woodland's  sheltered  nook. 

Have  the  pupils  read  this  stanza  and  try  to  answer 
the  question:  "What  season  of  the  year  is  implied 
by  these  lines?"  The  answers  will  indicate  whether 
or  not  the  pupils  understand  what  they  have  read. 
Surely  such  a  question  does  not  rob  the  poem  of  its 
beauty ! 

Would  the  beauty  of  the  following  stanza  be  at  all 
marred  by  asking  the  pupils  to  read  it  silently  and 
then  try  to  answer  the  question,  "What  is  the  name 
of  the  prettiest  bridge7 " 

There  are  bridges  on  the  rivers, 

As  pretty  as  you  please; 
But  the  bow  that  bridges  heaven, 

And  overtops  the  trees, 
And  builds  a  road  from  earth  to  sky, 

Is  prettier  far  than  these. 

Have  the  pupils  silently  read  the  following  poem, 
"The  Secret, "  then  try  to  answer  these  questions. 
What  was  the  secret?  How  do  you  suppose  the  tree 
told  it? 

We  have  a  secret,  just  we  three, 
The  robin  and  I  and  the  sweet  cherry  tree; 
The  bird  told  the  tree,  and  the  tree  told  me, 
And  nobody  knows  it  but  just  we  three. 


SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING  21 

But  of  course  the  robin  knows  it  best, 
Because  he  built, — I  shan't  tell  the  rest; 
And  laid  the  four  little — somethings — in  it. 
I'm  afraid  I  shall  tell  it  every  minute. 

The  teacher 's  aim  should  be  to  test  the  children's 
comprehension  of  a  poem,  not  by  having  them  give  a 
detailed  analysis  of  it,  but  by  requiring  answers  to 
carefully  worded  questions  that  demand  an  under- 
standing and  appreciation  of  the  chief  thoughts  and 
sentiments  expressed  in  the  selection. 

Other  reasons  for  teaching  oral  reading.  Other 
arguments  for  emphasizing  oral  reading  have  been 
advanced,  but  they  are  hardly  justified  by  recent 
scientific  investigations.  For  example,  some  teachers 
claim  that  since  so  many  pupils  are  of  the  auditory- 
image  type  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  they  read 
aloud  in  order  to  insure  a  high  degree  of  comprehen- 
sion. However,  recent  and  thoroughgoing  scientific 
experiments  make  such  assertions  untenable.  Bryan1 
subjected  more  than  600  school  children  to  forty-one 
different  tests  in  an  effort  to  determine  the  type  of 
imagery  most  dominant.  After  carefully  interpreting 
his  results,  he  decided  that  only  five  or  ten  of  the 
pupils  tested  showed  extreme  eye-mindedness  or  ear- 
mindedness.  Even  such  extreme  cases  are  not  handi- 
capped by  the  kind  of  presentation,  whether  it  be  to 
the  eye  or  to  the  ear,  because  each  pupil  quickly 
shifts  to  his  particular  image  type. 

1Bryan,  W.  L.  "Eye  and  ear-mindedness."  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Education  Association*  1893. 


22  SILENT  READING 

Betts,  who  has  made  one  of  the  most  thorough  in- 
vestigations of  both  voluntary  and  spontaneous  use  of 
imagery  in  thinking,  concludes: 

We  shall  have  to  insist  that  imagery,  apart  from 
inner  speech,  not  only  does  not  constitute  the  major 
part  of  the  thought  stream,  but  also  that  the  thought 
stream  may  and  does  go  on  efficiently  at  times  without 
any  imagery  whatever  in  it.  And  this  absence  of  imag- 
ery does  not  mean  mental  poverty,  but  only  mental  selec- 
tion. At  this  point,  as  at  all  others,  the  mind  is  but 
following  the  fundamental  law  of  economy,  and  using 
the  elements  which  will  most  efficiently  do  its  work 
with  the  least  effort.1 

Many  teachers  insist  that  one  of  the  best  means  of 
testing  a  pupil's  comprehension  of  a  paragraph  is  to 
have  him  read  it  orally.  They  contend  that  the  child's 
oral  expression  is  a  reliable  index  of  his  ability  to 
interpret  the  thought.  However,  such  statements  can- 
not go  unchallenged.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  some  pupils 
read  with  considerable  fluency  and  nearly  perfect 
expression,  but  fail  decidedly  when  tested  for  inter- 
pretation. This  is  shown  not  only  in  the  grades,  but 
even  in  colleges  where  students  often  fluently  read 
passages  in  some  foreign  language,  the  content  of 
which  they  are  unable  to  to  translate. 

Criticism  of  reading  methods.  At  present  there 
are  several  outstanding  criticisms  of  the  methods  of 
teaching  reading  now  most  generally  used.  There  has 
been  no  clear-cut  idea  of  what  should  be  included  in 

'Betts.  George  H.  "The  distribution  and  function  of  mental 
imagrery."  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education.  No. 


SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING  93 

the  subject;  consequently,  definition  of  aim  has  not 
been  possible.  We  have  too  long  suffered  overlapping 
and  confusion  of  subject-matter.  An  analysis  of 
courses  of  study  shows  that  the  following  subjects  are 
included  under  the  heading  "reading":  Literature, 
oral  English,  speech  defects,  elocution,  dramatization, 
pageantry,  oral  reading,  and  silent  reading.  We  can- 
not expect  large  returns  to  reward  our  efforts  in 
teaching  reading  until  we  realize  that  each  of  the 
above  subjects  has  its  own  definite  objectives  and 
methods  upon  which  we  must  focus  attention.  We 
have  failed  distinctly  to  recognize  the  fields  of  oral 
and  silent  reading,  and  we  have  been  unaware  that 
training  for  efficiency  in  oral  reading  may  not  develop 
efficiency  in  silent  reading. 

A  suggested  improvement.  The  authors  maintain 
that  silent  reading  is  not  a  new  study  to  be  added  to 
the  curriculum,  necessarily  requiring  the  reading  of 
some  particular  type  of  material.  Rather,  they  believe 
it  is  a  means  by  which  pupils  may  be  taught  how  to 
study.  Correct  methods  should  be  applied  to  every 
lesson  which  the  pupil  is  required  to  read  silently. 
The  possibilities  of  silent  reading  are  important 
enough  to  warrant  its  being  given  an  emphasis  equal 
to  that  laid  upon  oral  reading.  A  pupil  who  can  give 
the  main  ideas  of  a  selection  in  a  well-organized  form, 
after  a  single  reading  of  it,  is  a  good  reader;  the 
silent-reading  period  should  aim  to  develop  exactly 
this  power  in  studying.  However,  if  this  skill  is  to 


24  SILENT  READING 

be  acquired,  the  teacher  must  keep  in  mind  the  four 
fundamental  aims  of  silent  reading  —  speed,  compre- 
hension, organization,  and  retention. 

Chief  aims  of  silent  reading.  The  slow  reader  is 
continually  handicapped.  Every  year  increases  the 
reading  demands  made  on  school  children  and  adults. 
If  the  rate  of  silent  reading  can  be  increased,  while 
the  degree  of  comprehension  remains  the  same,  what 
a  tremendous  advantage  will  be  gained! 

The  ability  to  comprehend  what  one  reads  is  more 
important,  however,  than  the  ability  to  read  rapidly. 
The  ability  to  cover  many  pages  or  to  see  many  words 
in  a  short  time  profits  the  reader  but  little  unless  he 
understands  the  content.  Comprehension  is  funda- 
mental to  all  study;  to  the  degree  a  pupil  compre- 
hends, to  that  degree  he  makes  progress.  All  work, 
whether  in  oral  or  silent  reading,  should  stress  com- 
prehension. 

The  ability  to  organize  what  one  reads  is  the  third 
aim  in  developing  a  method  of  teaching  silent  reading. 
It  is  of  great  importance.  A  pupil  who  can  dis- 
tinguish between  points  of  major  and  minor  im- 
portance, who  has  acquired  the  ability  to  organize 
the  material  he  reads,  who  can  outline  and  sum- 
marize efficiently,  has  mastered  one  of  the  essential 
qualifications  demanded  of  a  good  reader. 

Helping  pupils  acquire  the  ability  to  retain  what 
they  read  is  also  of  the  utmost  importance,  because 
much  of  the  knowledge  acquired  today  in  school  is 


SILENT  OR  ORAL  READING 


25 


of  value  only  in  the  future.  In  fact,  the  ability  to 
think  soundly  and  to  reason  depends  on  how  well 
one  can  retain  certain  fundamental  ideas.  During 
the  silent-reading  exercises  teachers  should  stress  or- 
ganization, association,  routine  reviews,  and  all  other 
factors  that  aid  in  developing  a  good  memory. 

SUMMARY 

1.  Efficient    training   in   silent    reading   is    of    the   utmost 
importance  because  most  of  the  reading  done  in  daily 
life  is  silent. 

2.  Oral    reading  is   important   because   it  can  be   used  to 
teach    pronunciation,    articulation,    and   enunciation,    as 
well    as   the   effective    rendition   of   the   finer   thoughts 
and  feelings  of  the  race  as  expressed  in  literature.     It 
also  aids  in  the  appreciation  of  poetry  and  prose  mas- 
terpieces. 

3.  The  methods  used  for  teaching  oral  reading  have  gen- 
erally   failed    to    obtain    the    desired    results.     Compre- 
hension should  be  tested  by  carefully  worded  questions, 
the   answers    to    which    require   an   understanding   and 
appreciation  of  the  thought  and  feeling  which  the  selec- 
tion conveys. 

4.  Teachers  have  overlooked  the  importance  of  silent  read- 
ing as  a  means  of  training  pupils  how  to  study. 

5.  If  a  method  of  study  is  to  be  developed  by  silent  read- 
ing, the  fundamental  factors — speed,  comprehension,  or- 
ganization,  and   retention, — must   be   emphasized   daily. 

6.  Teachers  have  failed   to  get  the  greatest  results  frorp 
their  teaching  of  reading  because  their  energy  has  been 
dissipated  by  the  inclusion  of  oral  English,  dramatiza- 
tion,  literature,  and  other  subjects  under  the  heading 
reading.     They   have  failed   to  recognize   the  two  dis- 
tinct fields  of  reading,  oral  and  silent.     They  have  as- 
sumed that  training  pupils  to  read  orally  Is  equivalent 


26  SILENT  READING 

to  training  them  to  read  silently,  although  in  many 
respects  the  two  methods  of  instruction  and  the  respec- 
tive aims  are  distinctly  opposed  to  each  other. 

7.  Silent  reading  is  not  a  new  subject  to  be  added  to  the 
curriculum,   rather  a   means   of  teaching  a  method   of 
study. 

8.  Silent  reading  should  receive  at  least  as  much  emphasis 
as  oral  reading. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Bassett,  Lee  Emerson.  A  Handbook  in  Oral  Reading. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1917. 

Briggs,  T.  H.  and  Coffman,  L.  D.  Reading  in  Public  Schools. 
Row,  Peterson  and  Company,  Chicago,  1011. 

Gray,  W.  S.  "Principles  of  method  in  teaching  reading, 
derived  from  scientific  investigations."  The  Eighteenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion: Part  II.  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  Bloom- 
ington,  Illinois,  1019. 

Huey,  Edmund  B.  The  History  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading. 
The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  1015. 

Judd,  Charles  H.  Reading:  Its  Nature  and  Development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Vol.  2,  No.  4, 
(July)  1918.  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago. 

Klapper,  Paul.  Teaching  Children  to  Read.  D.  Appleton  and 
Company,  New  York  City,  1914. 

O'Brien,  John  A.  Silent  Reading.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City,  1921. 

Pintner,  Rudolf  and  Gilliland,  A.  R.  "Oral  and  silent  read- 
ing." Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  7,  (April) 
1915. 


CHAPTER  II 

SPEED  IN  READING 

The  importance  of  speed.  Training  for  speed  in 
reading  is  directly  related  to  teaching  pupils  how  to 
study  effectively.  The  ability  to  read  an  assignment 
rapidly,  and  at  the  same  time  get  the  main  points, 
is  an  essential  factor  in  developing  the  habit  of 
economical  study. 

The  slow  reader,  in  school  and  out,  is  handicapped. 
Courses  of  study  are  continually  being  made  richer 
and  broader;  this  demands  more  reading  and  greater 
discrimination.  In  life  outside  of  school  the  demands 
made  on  the  average  person  as  a  citizen  and  social 
being  are  increasing  each  year.  In  fact,  success  and 
happiness  in  life  may  depend  largely  upon  the  kind 
and  scope  of  one's  reading. 

Inability  of  pupils  to  read  rapidly.  Students  in 
normal  schools  and  colleges  are  also  working  under 
a  handicap  because  the  length  of  the  assignments  is 
increasing,  although  little  is  done  to  increase  their 
rate  of  reading.  The  authors  vividly  recall  an  ex- 
perience which  illustrates  this  variation  in  reading 
rates.  The  students  in  three  elementary  psychology 
classes  in  a  certain  normal  school  felt  that  an  assign- 

27 


28  SILENT  READING 

ment  of  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  pages  was  far  too 
long.  These  mature  men  and  women,  former  teachers, 
who  were  spending  an  average  of  three  hours  on  each 
assignment,  brought  the  matter  to  our  notice  in  a 
friendly  way.  We  thought  it  best  to  inquire  into 
their  habits  of  study.  Since  the  three  classes  were 
in  a  study  auditorium  for  the  first  two  hours  each 
morning,  the  instructor  and  three  or  four  assistants 
undertook  to  measure  the  approximate  reading  rates 
of  the  students  in  an  unobtrusive  manner.  The 
investigators  found  that  although  a  few  students 
read  at  the  rate  of  a  page  per  minute,  some  spent 
as  much  as  eight  and  three-fourths  minutes  on  each 
page,  and  the  majority  of  the  class  read  at  the  rate 
of  a  page  every  four  and  one-fourth  minutes.  The 
reading  rate  of  these  adults  was  twelve  to  fourteen 
pages  an  hour,  although  it  should  have  been  at  least 
forty  pages  an  hour,  considering  the  simplicity  of 
the  subject-matter. 

The  discouraging  feature  of  the  outcome  of  this 
investigation  was  that  even  when  those  students  did 
try  to  increase  their  rate  of  reading,  they  succeeded 
in  doing  so  materially  only  when  they  were  timing 
themselves.  As  soon  as  they  failed  to  observe  the 
time  element  of  the  experiment  they  relapsed  into 
their  usual  rate,  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed 
since  childhood. 

Wide  variation  in  reading  rates.  The  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  reading  rates  of  pupils  makes  the  task 


SPEED  IN  READING 


29 


of  increasing  speed  a  very  complex  problem.  Any 
teacher  in  any  grade  who  will  ask  her  pupils  to  read 
a  given  selection  for  a  period  of  even  three  to  five 
minutes  can  obtain  sufficient  data  to  demonstrate  the 
wide  variation  in  their  reading  rates.  She  will  find 
that  when  measured  for  speed  alone,  pupils  tend  to 
fall  into  three  groups,  the  noticeably  slow  readers, 
the  medium-rate  readers,  and  the  very  rapid  readers. 
The  following  figures,  which  designate  the  number 
of  words  read  per  minute  by  a  group  of  sixth-grade 
pupils,  strikingly  illustrate  the  sort  of  condition  that 
one  generally  finds  when  making  such  an  investiga- 
tion: 374,  374,  362,  238,  197,  188,  181,  174,  170,  152, 
145,  125,  121,  113,  98. 

In  many  cases  this  variation  in  reading  rate  ac- 
counts for  the  assignment  being  too  easy  for  some, 
too  difficult  for  others,  but  nearly  right  for  one-third 
to  one-half  of  the  class.  Drill  exercises,  instead  of 
placing  the  pupils  on  a  more  nearly  even  footing  by 
decreasing  the  amount  of  difference  between  the  rates 
of  various  groups,  tends  to  increase  it.  Suggestions 
for  economically  handling  a  class  which  contains 
these  three  types  of  readers  may  be  found  in 
Chapter  XV. 

Monroe's  experiments.  Monroe  gives  the  following 
statement  of  his  conclusions  regarding  the  probability 
of  increasing  the  rate  of  silent  reading: 

The  average  silent-reading  rate  of  eighth-grade  pupils 
is  approximately  240  words  per  minute  for  continuous 


30  SILENT  READING 

material.  Scientific  investigation  is  revealing  that  this 
rate  may  be  greatly  increased  by  the  application  of 
appropriate  methods.  On  the  basis  of  data  already  se- 
cured, it  is  conservative  to  say  that  this  rate  could  be 
increased  25  per  cent.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  even 
conservative  to  say  that  it  could  be  increased  50  per 
cent. 

Silent  reading  is  used  as  a  tool  in  practically  all 
subjects  studied  in  the  high  school  or  in  college.  The 
pupil  who  is  equipped  to  read  at  the  rate  of  300  words 
per  minute  has  a  decided  advantage  over  the  pupil 
who  is  equipped  to  read  only  240  words  per  minute. 
It  means  that  the  pupil  who  reads  more  slowly  either 
must  spend  more  hours  upon  his  work  or  do  less  work. 

Of  two  pupils  who  spend  an  equal  number  of  hours 
upon  their  work  in  high  school,  the  one  who  reads  at 
the  rate  of  300  words  per  minute  will  accomplish  one- 
fourth  more  than  the  pupil  who  reads  at  the  rate  of 
240  words  per  minute.  This  will  mean  that  in  the 
course  of  four  years  this  pupil  will  do  25  per  cent 
more  work,  which  approximates  the  equivalent  of  an 
extra  year  of  schooling. 

The  data  which  we  have  at  hand  not  only  show  that 
the  rate  may  be  increased,  but  also  that  the  degree 
of  comprehension  can  be  materially  increased,  perhaps 
to  an  equal  extent.  Therefore,  not  only  may  pupils 
be  trained  to  read  more  rapidly,  but  at  the  same  time 
they  may  be  trained  to  read  with  increased  understand- 
ing. Thus,  the  pupil  who  has  been  trained  to  read  at 
the  rate  of  300  words  per  minute  not  only  will  grain 
nn  extra  year's  schooling  during  his  high-school  course, 
but  if  his  training  has  been  of  the  right  sort,  he  will 
actually  do  a  better  quality  of  work.1 

Danger  in  speed  drills.  One  of  the  fundamental 
aims  of  silent  reading  is  that  of  training  each  child 

'Monroe,  W.  S.  "Value  of  standardized  silent-reading  tests." 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  1,  (February)  1920. 


SPEED  IN  READING  3! 

to  attain  his  highest  level  of  achievement  in  speed 
without  lowering  his  rate  of  comprehension,  Al- 
though rapid  reading,  even  "skimming/'  is  of  great 
importance,  yet  one  would  hesitate  to  increase  the 
speed  of  reading  if  training  in  thought-getting  would 
be  sacrificed  in  doing  so.  Many  teachers  have  the  idea 
that  the  one  great  value  of  silent  reading  is  that  it 
trains  for  speed. 

The  authors  have  visited  several  of  the  leading 
city  school  systems  and  noted  the  great  effort  that 
teachers  are  making  to  help  pupils  acquire  speed  in 
reading.  Some  of  them  conduct  reading  classes  in 
which  the  only  direction  given  to  the  children  is, 
"Read  this  lesson  through  once  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible. "  The  teacher  keeps  a  careful  time  check  on 
each  pupil.  These  time  records  are  daily  charted  on 
the  blackboard  as  an  incentive  to  greater  speed,  not 
only  for  the  individual  but  for  the  class  as  a  whole. 

Many  teachers  have  a  three  to  five-minute  time  limit 
in  their  speed  drills.  They  then  count  the  number  of 
lines  or  words  read.  These  results  are  then  placed 
on  the  blackboard  -as  a  means  of  motivating  pupils 
to  increase  their  speed.  There  are  many  other  devices 
used  to  secure  speed  in  reading,  but  the  two  men- 
tioned are  typical  of  all. 

The  methods  described  are  pernicious,  as  are  all 
schemes  that  have  as  their  sole  objective  an  increase 
of  speed  in  reading.  These  devices  develop  slovenly, 
careless  readers.  The  inborn  desire  to  outdo  others 


32  SILENT  READING 

seizes  the  child,  and  since  the  teacher  takes  no  ac- 
count of  what  the  pupil  comprehends  or  the  amount 
of  content  which  he  retains,  the  result  is  reckless 
"skimming,"  seeing  words,  and  for  many  pupils,  see- 
ing only  lines. 

Value  of  effective  speed  drills.  It  is  entirely  pos- 
sible, however,  to  train  the  pupils  of  every  grade 
to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  speed,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  increase  their  ability  to  get  the  main 
points  or  thoughts  in  the  lesson.  The  methods  for 
securing  speed  discussed  above  were  condemned  be- 
cause comprehension  or  thought-getting  was  entirely 
neglected.  Had  the  teacher  who  used  these  devices 
for  the  purpose  of  training  in  getting  speed  also 
given  the  pupils  a  test  to  determine  how  well  they 
had  got  the  thought  of  the  lesson,  then  carefully 
charted  those  results,  the  ideal  and  habit  of  reading 
for  thought  would  have  been  equally  developed. 

Teachers  who  give  daily  drills  for  speed  and  com- 
prehension find  that  many  students  tend  to  read  at 
great  speed  but  with  little  comprehension.  A  cor- 
rective device  for  this  evil  consists  in  determining 
each  pupil's  class  standing  by  the  sum  of  his  ranks 
in  both  speed  and  comprehension.  An  example  of 
the  conditions  which  that  plan  often  reveals  is  shown 
in  the  case  of  a  boy  who  usually  ranked  first  in 
speed  in  a  class  of  twenty-four,  but  twenty-second  in 
comprehension.  This  speedy  but  careless  reader  had  a 
total  score  of  twentv-three  which  ranked  him  much 


SPEED  IN  READING  33 

lower  than  one  of  his  classmates  who  was  third  in 
speed  but  first  in  thought-getting.  It  is  an  axiom  that 
every  speed  drill  in  reading  should  be  followed  by  a 
test  of  thought-getting.  The  results  of  Miss  Green's 
experiment,  presented  in  Chapter  III,  substantiate 
the  claim  that  both  speed  and  comprehension  in  silent 
reading  may  be  greatly  improved  in  a  relatively  short 
time. 

GillilancTs  experiment.1  This  investigation  was  an 
attempt  to  answer  the  questions:  Can  a  reader  speed 
up  his  reading  rate  without  lowering  his  capacity  to 
reproduce  what  he  has  read?  What  is  the  effect 
of  different  speeds  of  silent  reading  upon  ability  to 
recall  what  has  been  read? 

Two  sets  of  six  paragraphs  each  were  chosen  for 
the  experiment.  One  set  was  for  use  with  high-school 
and  college  students,  the  other  for  use  with  pupils  of 
the  fourth  and  seventh  grades.  The  paragraphs  in  a 
set  were  relatively  equal  in  difficulty  but  differed 
widely  in  conte'nt.  Each  paragraph  included  ten 
distinct  ideas  and  contained  fifty  words.  A  paragraph 
chosen  from  each  of  the  two  sets  is  given  below. 
Each  paragraph  was  printed  on  a  separate  card. 

The  Amazon  is  the  longest  river  in  the  world. 
It  drains  most  of  the  northern  half  of  South 
America.  Its  mouth  is  along  the  equator.  The 
rubber  tree  grows  in  this  valley  and  the  few 

iGilliland.   A.   R.      "The  effect   of  rate   of  silent  reading  on  abil- 
ity to  recall."     Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.   11,    ( 
vember)    1920. 


34 


SILENT  READING 


people  that  live  there  spend  most  of  their  time 
making  gum. 

(Selected  from  the  material  for  grade  pupils.) 

In  person,  William  of  Orange  was  above 
middle  height.  His  eyes  and  complexion  were 
brown.  His  head  was  small,  portraying  the 
alertness  of  a  soldier.  He  was  more  than  any- 
thing else  religious.  He  went  through  life  bear- 
ing the  people's  sorrows  upon  his  shoulders 
with  a  smiling  face. 

(Selected  from  the  material  for  high-school  and 
college  students.) 

Each  subject  read  at  three  different  rates  of  speed, 
his  normal  rate,  his  maximum  speed  as  controlled  by 
the  knowledge  that  he  would  be  called  upon  to  re- 
produce what  he  had  read,  and  a  rate  of  about 
half  normal  speed.  As  a  rule  this  last  speed  was 
actually  not  nearly  so  slow  as  the  subject  was  di- 
rected to  read,  but  it  was  definitely  slower  than  his 
normal  rate. 

TABLE  I 
COMPREHENSION  SCORES 


Slow 

FOURTH  - 
ORADB 
PUPILS 

FEVFNTH- 

ORADK 

PUPILS 

TTlOFT- 
SfMioOL 

STUDENTS 

POLI.EOE 

STUDENTS 

8.3 

11.1 

10.5 

10.6 

Normal 

8.25 

10.3 

8.56 

10.7 

Fast 

9.57 

11.04 

8.54 

9.75 

The  above  table  indicates  that  fourth-grade  pupils 
scored  8.3  ideas  on  the  two  paragraphs  when  read- 


SPEED  IN  READING 


35 


ing  slowly,  8.25  ideas  when  reading  at  normal  rate, 
and  9.57  ideas  when  reading  rapidly.  Thus  it  is 
evident  that  changing  the  rate  of  reading  did  not 
materially  affect  the  comprehension.  The  table  is  to 
be  interpreted  in  the  same  manner  for  the  other 
groups. 

Generally  the  readers  seemed  to  get  about  the  same 
number  of  ideas  whether  they  read  rapidly,  slowly,  or 
at  the  normal  rate.  If  there  was  an  advantage,  it 
seemed  to  be  in  favor  of  rapid  reading  for  the  chil- 
dren and  slow  reading  for  the  older  students. 

When  we  consider  the  time  required  to  read  the 
paragraphs,  in  relation  to  the  amount  of  material 
gained  from  the  reading,  we  see  the  great  advantage 
of  rapid  reading  as  compared  with  slow  or  normal 
reading.  There  were  20  per  cent  fewer  ideas  gained 
per  second  in  slow  reading  than  in  reading  at  the 
normal  rate,  and  26  per  cent  more  ideas  gained  per 
second  in  rapid  reading  than  in  reading  at  the  normal 
rate.  This  superiority  of  rapid  reading  is  shown  by 
each  of  the  four  groups  of  subjects  tested. 

TABLE  II 
IDEAS  GAINED  PER  SECOND 


FOURTH  - 

SEVENTH  - 

HIGH- 

GRADE 

GRADE 

SCHOOL 

COLLEGF 

PUPILS 

PUPILS 

STUDENTS 

STUDENTS 

Slow 

.134 

.234 

.195 

.242 

Normal 

.183 

.266 

.251 

.416 

Fast 

.256 

.293 

.329 

.566 

36  SILENT  READING 

The  figures  given  in  Table  II  clearly  set  forth 
the  value  of  rapid  reading.  For  instance,  .134  ideas 
were  gained  per  second  when  these  fourth-grade 
pupils  read  slowly,  and  .256  ideas,  nearly  twice  as 
many,  were  gained  when  the  pupils  read  rapidly. 
Since  the  pupils  obtained  practically  the  same  num- 
ber of  ideas  from  each  of  the  two  paragraphs  (as 
shown  by  Table  I),  whether  they  read  at  a  slow, 
normal,  or  fast  rate,  the  advantage  and  importance 
of  reading  these  paragraphs  rapidly  (or  in  almost 
half  the  time  required  when  the  pupils  read  slowly) 
is  significant.  For  example,  fourth-grade  pupils 
when  reading  slowly  required  61.6  seconds  to  read 
the  two  paragraphs;  they  scored  only  8.3  ideas. 
Dividing  the  comprehension  score  by  the  time  gives 
.134  ideas  per  second.  Pupils  of  this  same  grade, 
when  requested  to  read  rapidly,  used  only  37  seconds 
in  reading  the  two  paragraphs;  they  then  obtained 
9.57  ideas.  Using  the  method  of  computation  sug- 
gested above  gives  .256  ideas  per  second.  It  is  of 
course  understood  that  pupils  should  not  be  urged  to 
read  so  speedily  that  they  exceed  the  rate  at  which 
one  may  expect  them  to  comprehend  the  material 
read. 

While  there  are  unquestionably  speed  limits  be- 
yond which  we  should  not  go,  there  seems  little  doubt 
that  almost  any  one-  can  materially  increase  his  read- 
ing rate  without  perceptibly  reducing  the  percentage 
of  ideas  which  he  can  reproduce.  If  this  is  true,  the 


SPEED  IN  READING  37 

teacher  of  reading  who  insists  upon  accurate,  rapid, 
silent  reading  would  be  able  to  reduce  not  only  the 
time  required  by  pupils  for  preparing  their  lessons, 
but  also  greatly  increase  their  efficiency  in  life,  which 
is  a  matter  of  still  greater  importance. 

Physiological  factors  affecting  speed.  Perhaps  no 
other  institution  has  done  as  much  research  in  an 
attempt  to  determine  the  physiological  factors  af- 
fecting reading  as  has  the  University  of  Chicago.  By 

jWhen     DennJ     had     tegained     consciousness,     and 

+S  /  //a.  7  93  ?+//£• 

everything  possible  for  his  coijifort  and  for  tne  a|- 

FlGURB    I1 

means  of  very  delicate  and  extensive  laboratory  equip- 
ment and  a  group  of  trained  experimenters  it  has 
been  possible  to  gather  many  scientific  data  on  the 
eye-movements  of  children  and  adults  of  various 
mental  capacities  when  using  different  types  of  read- 
ing material. 

By  means  of  photographic  registrations  Dearborn 
found  that  movements  of  the  eye  when  reading  are 
interrupted  by  distinct  pauses  or  fixations.  The  six 
pauses  in  the  first  line  and  the  five  in  the  second  line 
of  Figure  1  were  made  by  an  adult  when  reading. 


Charles  H.  Judd's  Reading:  Its  Nature  and  Development 
(p.  18).  Supplementary  Educational  Monograph,  Vol.  2.  No.  4. 
(July)  1918.  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago. 


38 


SILENT  READING 


The -6   was 


anc 


thfer  birfl  in   t 


room 


'      3     4- 


/o 


lowever, 


knew  v 


'* 


10 


// 


rhat  g 


•asshopj  ers  \ 


rere  good  f( 


X  /0 


r.     He 


TlK.  2.  Silent  reading  by  a  poor  reader  in  the  fifth  grade. 
X  indicates  that  it  waa  impossible  to  determine  with  precision 
the  length  of  the  pause. 


matched  a  cu 


tlass  from  th 


e  pile,  and  someone, 


atth 


same  time  s 


latching  anol 


4-1 

her,  gave  mle  a  cut 


Fig.  3.  Silent  reading  by  a  rapid  reader  in  the  seventh  grade. 
Each  vertical  line  indicates  one  pause.  The  top  number  indi- 
cates the  number  of  the  pause,  the  bottom  number  its  duration 
in  fiftieths  of  a  second. 


After    Samuel    Chester    Parker's?    figure    in     the    Elementary 
School  Journal,  December,   1921. 


SPEED  IN  READING 


39 


The  number  of  pauses  per  line  varies  with  different 
readers  as  shown  by  Figures  2  and  3  on  page  38. 

From  a  physiological  point  of  view,  the  main  char- 
acteristics of  slow  reading  are,  many  pauses  or  fixation- 
points,  a  considerable  duration  of  time  at  each  point, 
and  a  number  of  regressive  movements  or  backward 
sweeps. 

As  one  should  expect,  the  characteristics  of  rapid 
reading  are,  fewer  pauses,  a  very  short  time  duration 
at  each  pause,  and  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  regres- 
sive movements. 

Dearborn's  conclusions.  After  much  experimenting, 
Dearborn  declares  that  each  person  has  formed 
"  motor  habits "  in  reading  which  are  evidenced  by 
a  rhythmical  series  of  the  same  number  of  pauses  per 
line,  and  by  a  uniform  time  distribution  at  each  fixa- 
tion-point. He  also  declares  that  the  amount  read 
in  a  sweep  is  seldom  equal  to  the  extent  of  the  field 
of  perception.  In  other  words,  at  one  " eyeful" 
pupils  do  not  take  in  all  the  syllables  and  words  that 
they  are  really  able  to  see.  Hence,  speed  in  reading 
can  be  materially  increased  by  enlarging  the  percep- 
tion-span. Exercises  in  which  phrase  cards  are  flashed 
are  an  effective  means  of  lengthening  the  child's  per- 
ception-unit. 

From  such  data  any  wide-awake  teacher  of  reading 
may  properly  deduce  the  following  conclusions:  All 
methods  or  devices  should  tax  the  eye-span  to  the 
limit;  that  is,  each  child  should  be  trained  to  see 


40  SILENT  READING 

as  many  words  as  possible  at  each  of  his  pauses  or  fixa- 
tion-points. All  methods  or  devices  used  in  the  grades 
should  aim  to  reduce  the  frequency  of  pauses  or 
fixations.  Since  most  of  the  reading  time  per  line 
is  consumed  at  the  fixation-points,  the  teacher  should 
use  only  those  devices  which  lessen  the  time  spent  at 
each  pause.  Since  one's  rate  of  reading  becomes  a 
fixed  motor  habit,  as  difficult  to  change  as  is  any 
other  habit,  great  stress  should  be  laid  throughout 
the  grades  on  forming  motor  habits  of  speed,  ac- 
curacy, and  stability  because  it  is  likely  that  by  the 
time  the  pupils  reach  the  seventh  grade  it  will  be 
difficult  to  change  their  motor  habits  in  reading. 

The  old  A  B  C  method,  our  present  overemphasis 
of  word  and  phonic  methods,  and  the  undue  emphasis 
placed  on  oral  reading  in  the  lower  grades,  are  some 
of  the  outstanding  causes  of  the  present  slow  rate  of 
reading.  The  evil  effects  of  these  methods  are  fully 
treated  in  later  chapters.  The  particular  methods 
and  devices  one  should  use  to  insure  the  functioning 
of  the  above  principles  are  fully  discussed  and  demon- 
strated by  sample  lessons  for  each  grade  in  Part  II. 
Any  method  which  does  not  to  a  marked  degree  tax 
the  child's  ability  in  speed  and  comprehension  should 
be  discarded. 

Hygienic  factors  affecting  speed.  The  print  of  the 
page  is  of  great  importance  because  the  length  of  line 
affects  the  motor  habits,  and  because  the  length  of 
line  and  size  of  type  may  produce  eyestrain  and 


SPEED  IN  READING 


41 


fatigue.  Experiments  have  proven  that  the  lines  in 
our  textbooks  are  usually  too  long.  Dearborn  favors 
a  line  about  one-third  longer  than  that  usually  used 
in  a  newspaper.  That  length  enables  the  reader  to 
get  concurrent  impressions  from  the  lines  immediately 
above  and  below  the  one  being  read,  with  which  they 
are  often  closely  related  in  thought.  Long  lines  of 
reading  matter  distract  because  the  concurrent  im- 
pressions received  from  the  lines  immediately  above 
and  below  the  one  being  read  are  unrelated  to  the 
object  of  immediate  attention.  When  the  lines  are 
too  long,  they  £ive  no  opportunity  for  a  wide  span 
of  attention;  the  peripheral  perceptions  from  the 
ends  of  a  line  arc  too  different  and  confused  to  aid 
the  reader  in  inferring  the  general  nature  of  the  line's 
content. 

Since  the  number  of  pauses  per  line  and  the  time 
spent  at  each  pause  affect  the  speed  of  reading, 
short  lines  make  it  possible  for  the  reader  to  gather 
a  general  notion  of  the  thought  in  the  whole  line 
at  the  initial  fixation.  This  in  turn  makes  the  fol- 
lowing pauses  in  the  line  few  in  number,  and  the  dura- 
tion of  each  pause  much  less.  In  short,  we  guess 
much  in  our  reading,  or  read  "out  of  the  tail  of  the 
eye,"  so  to  speak.  It  is  well  to  remark  that  reading 
familiar  subject-matter  helps  pupils  to  establish  wider 
perception-units. 

Size  of  type  is  often  regarded  as  an  important 
factor  affecting  the  speed  of  reading.  Judd  states, 


42  ,  SILENT  READING 

however,  that  there  is  only  a  slight  change  in  the 
number  of  words  recognized  at  each  fixation  when 
the  size  of  the  type  is  doubled.  When  the  size 
is  reduced  by  half,  the  character  of  the  eye-move- 
ments undergoes  only  a  slight  change. 

The  effect  of  irregular  indentation  or  of  breaks 
in  a  line,  such  as  often  occur  around  illustrations, 
is  detrimental  to  speed  when  reading  and  often  causes 
early  fatigue.  The  occasional  change  of  muscular 
motor  adjustment  and  angular  displacement  slows  up 
the  rate  of  reading  by  causing  longer  pauses  at 
fixations  and  by  causing  many  cases  of  refixation, 
that  is,  coming  back  over  the  word.  This  muscular 
readjustment  soon  causes  fatigue  which  may  result 
in  serious  eyestrain,  if  reading  is  long  continued. 
For  that  reason  those  primers  with  the  open-page 
appearance,  large  type,  good  spacing,  and  words 
grouped  in  natural  phrases  are  to  be  highly  recom- 
mended, because  such  an  arrangement  of  material 
promotes  word  grouping. 

Other  factors  affecting  speed.  The  psychological 
and  environmental  factors  that  affect  speed  and  com- 
prehension properly  belong  to  the  next  chapter.  The 
child's  rate  of  reading  depends  largely  on  his  ability 
quickly  to  comprehend  new  situations,  and  this  in 
turn  may  be  influenced  by  the  range  of  his  experi- 
ences. Quick  word  recognition  depends  upon  the 
physiological  and  mechanical  factors  discussed,  and 
upon  the  psychological  as  well. 


SPEED  IN  READING  43 

SUMMARY 

1.  Silent  reading  is  a  means  of  training  pupils  in  effec- 
tive methods  of  study;   hence,  the  silent-reading  period 
should  be  used  to  develop  that  skill. 

2.  Speed    in    reading   is   one   of   the   requisites   which   an 
economical  method  of  study  demands. 

3.  Experiments    indicate   that    pupils    and    adults   are   far 
below   their   possible  achievements   in  rate  of  reading, 
and  that  the  speed  and  comprehension  abilities  of  pupils 
may  be  increased  at  the  same  time. 

4.  Physiological  factors,  viz.,  eye-span  and  duration  at  the 
fixation-points,  are  important  factors  that  must  be  seri- 
ously considered  and  taken  into  account  in  all  methods 
of  teaching  reading. 

5.  Mechanical  factors,  viz.,  length  of  line  and  size  of  type, 
help  to  determine  the  rate  of  speed  and  fatigue. 

6.  Teachers  should  discard  all  methods  of  teaching  silent 
reading   which    do   not   encourage   a   pupil   to   read   as 
rapidly  as  possible  without  detriment  to  thought-getting. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Abell,  Adelaide.  "Rapid  reading:  Advantages  and  method." 
Educational  Review,  Vol.  8  (October)  1894. 

Bowden,  Josephine.  "Learning  to  read."  (An  unpublished 
master's  dissertation  offered  to  the  University  of  Chicago 
in  1911.) 

Dearborn,  Walter  F.  "The  psychology  of  reading."  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Philosophy  and  Psy- 
chology, Vol.  14,  No.  1,  1906. 

Gray,  Clarence  T.  Types  of  Reading  Ability  as  Exhibited 
Through,  Tests  and  Laboratory  Experiments.  Supplemen- 
tary Educational  Monographs,  Vol.  1,  No.  5,  (August)  1917. 
University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago. 

Judd,  Charles  H.  Reading:  Its  Nature  and  Development. 
Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Vol.  2,  No.  4, 
(July)  1918.  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago. 


44  SILENT  READING 

O'Brien,  John  A.  Silent  Reading.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, New  York  City,  1921. 

Peters,  Charles  C.  "The  influence  of  speed  drills  upon  the 
rate  and  effectiveness  of  silent  reading."  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  16,  No.  1,  1907. 

Quantz,  J.  O.  "Problems  in  the  psychology  of  reading." 
Psychological  Review:  Monograph  Supplement,  Vol.  2, 
No.  1,  (December)  1897. 

Ruediger,  William  C.  "The  field  of  distinct  vision."  Co- 
lumbia University  Contributions  to  Philosophy  and  Psy- 
chology, Vol.  16,  No.  1,  1907. 

Schmidt,  William  A.  An  Experimental  Study  in  the  Psy- 
chology of  Reading.  Supplementary  Educational  Mono- 
graphs, Vol.  1,  No.  2,  (April)  1917.  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press,  Chicago. 

Whipple,  G.  M.  and  Curtis.  Josephine.  "Preliminary  in- 
vestigation of  'skimming*  in  reading."  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  Vol.  8,  (June)  1917. 


CHAPTER  III 

DEVELOPING  THE  ABILITY  TO  COMPREHEND 

The  importance  of  comprehension.  On  the  pre- 
ceding pages  we  have  repeatedly  emphasized  the  fact 
that  the  silent-reading  period  should  nearly  all  be 
devoted  to  teaching  pupils  right  methods  of  study. 
The  good  student  is  one  who  rapidly  reads  his  lesson 
through  once,  and  at  the  same  time  is  able  to  com- 
prehend the  content  of  what  he  reads.  Developing 
skill  in  thought-getting,  as  well  as  training  in  increas- 
ing speed,  is  absolutely  essential  in  teaching  pupils  how 
to  study. 

Training  in  quick  apprehension  and  in  comprehen- 
sion is  the  important  task,  because  it  is  the  basis  of 
the  pupil's  possible  progress  in  all  subjects.  Failure 
to  solve  arithmetic  problems  is  often  due  to  inability 
accurately  to  read  the  conditions  set  forth.  Whether 
the  subject-matter  is  geography,  history,  grammar,  or 
hygiene,  the  pupil's  success  depends  largely  upon 
his  ability  to  get  the  meaning  from  the  printed  page. 
This  ability  is  almost  entirely  a  product  of  training; 
the  logical  and  ideal  time  to  give  specific  drill  hi  de- 
veloping it  is  during  the  silent-reading  period. 

Comprehension    neglected.       Training    children    to 

45 


46  SILENT  READING 

comprehend  has  been  and  is  now  the  most  neglected 
factor  in  teaching  reading.  Horace  Mann,  in  his 
Second  Annual  Report  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Education,  in  1838  wrote  as  follows: 

I  have  devoted  especial  pains  to  learn,  with  some  de- 
gree of  numerical  accuracy,  how  far  the  reading  in 
our  schools  is  an  exercise  of  the  mind  in  thinking  and 
feeling,  and  how  far  it  is  a  barren  action  of  the  organs 
of  speech  upon  the  atmosphere.  My  information  is  de- 
rived, principally,  from  the  written  statements  of  the 
school  committees  of  the  respective  towns  —  gentlemen 
who  are  certainly  exempt  from  all  temptation  to  dis- 
parage the  schools  they  superintend.  The  result  is,  that 
more  than  eleven-twelfths  of  all  the  children  in  read- 
ing classes,  in  our  schools,  do  not  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words  they  read;  that  they  do  not  master 
the  sense  of  the  reading  lessons,  and  that  the  ideas 
and  feelings  intended  by  the  author  to  be  conveyed  to, 
and  excited  in,  the  reader's  mind,  still  rest  in  the  au- 
thor's intention,  never  having  yet  reached  the  place 
of  their  destination.  And  by  this  it  is  not  meant  that 
the  scholars  do  not  obtain  such  a  full  comprehension 
of  the  reading  lessons  in  its  various  relations  and  bear- 
ings, as  a  scientific  or  enidite  reader  would  do,  but 
that  they  do  not  acquire  a  reasonable  and  practicable 
understanding  of  them.  It  would  hardly  seem  that 
the  combined  efforts  of  all  persons  engaged  could  have 
accomplished  more  in  defeating  the  true  objects  of  read- 
ing. 

We  have  made  great  progress  in  teaching  reading, 
especially  in  the  primary  grades,  since  the  time  of 
Horace  Mann,  but  we  have  scarcely  begun  to  do  the 
work  right.  Thousands  of  teachers  continue  the 
traditional  method  of  hearing  the  children  read 


COMPREHENSION 


47 


throughout  the  whole  recitation  period.  They  ask 
very  few,  if  any,  questions  about  the  content.  Most 
of  the  questions  pertain  to  enunciation,  inflection 
and  the  omission,  insertion,  or  mispronunciation  of 
words.  The  pupils  sit  listlessly  in  their  seats,  waitinp 
only  for  their  turn  to  drawl  through,  or  possibly  to 
declaim,  a  paragraph  or  two.  The  idea  of  testing 
the  pupil's  comprehension  of  what  he  reads  and  his 
ability  to  retain  the  main  points  of  each  paragraph 
seems  foreign  to  teachers  of  reading  in  many  schools. 
A  typical  lesson.  The  following  is  part  of  the 
stenographic  report  of  a  sixth-grade  reading  lesson 
observed  in  a  city  school.  The  report  records  verbatim 
every  question  asked  and  every  suggestion  that  re- 
sembled a  question,  except  in  two  instances  when  a 
few  pupils  talked  among  themselves  so  inaudibly  that 
one  could  not  hear  distinctly.  The  title  of  the  lesson 
was  " Henry  Hudson." 

TEACHER:     Open  your  books  to  the  lesson.     What  is 
the  title  of  the  lesson?     Who  was  Henry 
Hudson? 
Then  followed  a  dispute  as  to  whether  Hudson  was 

an  Englishman  or  a  Dutchman. 

TEACHER:    Let    us    proceed    with    our    reading    now. 
Had   you    read   this    lesson    carefully    you 
would  have  known  Hudson  was  no  Dutch- 
man.   Metha,  you  may  begin. 
The  pupil  read  the  first  paragraph.     While  she  was 

reading,  eleven  of  the  twenty-three  pupils  were  looking 

about  the  room  apparently  wool  gathering. 


48  SILENT  READING 

The  name  of  this  bold  sailor  will  be  learned  by  every 
boy  or  girl  who  studies  geography.  Most  of  us  know 
of  the  beautiful  Hudson  River,  the  finest  stream  of  water 
in  the  great  Empire  State,  New  York.  A  noted  strait 
and  bay  are  named  also  for  this  hardy  captain  of  the 


TEACHER:     Did  any  of  you  see  any  mistakes? 

PUPIL:  Please,  teacher,  she  did  not  say  " geo- 
graphy "  right. 

TEACHER:  How  should  it  be  pronounced?  (The  pupil 
then  articulated  the  word.)  Any  other  sug- 
gestions ? 

PUPIL:  She  didn't  stop  or  even  raise  her  voice  be- 
tween " Empire  State "  and  "New  York." 

TEACHER:  That's  right.  Remember,  children,  these 
commas  and  periods  mean  something.  Next, 
Sarah,  you  read. 

The  pupil  read  the  second  paragraph  very  well.  One 
boy  was  quietly  sharpening  his  pencil,  two  others  were 
whispering,  another  was  whirling  his  knife,  and  a  girl 
wat  adjusting  a  ribbon. 

Hudson  was  English  born  and  English  bred.  He  sailed 
on  the  great  Atlantic  Ocean  first  in  an  English  ship, 
to  find  a  passage  to  far-away  China.  He  sailed  to  the 
northwest  in  the  hope  that  he  would  find  a  way  open 
to  the  Pacific  across  the  North  Pole,  or  not  far  below 
it.  The  brave  captain  saw  mountains  of  ice,  and  he 
went  nearer  the  North  Pole  than  any  one  had  ever  done 
before,  but  he  could  not  find  the  passage  he  was  looking 
for. 

TEACHER:    Any  corrections? 

PUPIL:         No,  but  which  way  and  about  how  far  is 

China  from  here? 

The  teacher  gave  a  fair  answer.  Two  pupils  then 
asked  questions  relative  to  the  meaning  of  "English 


COMPREHENSION  49 

bred"  and  "ice  mountains/'  which  seemed  to  be  an- 
swered  by  two  others  near  the  questioner. 
TEACHER:     Robert  we'll  have  you  read.      Maybe  you 
will  forget  playing  with  your  knife  awhile. 
The  pupil  read  very  plainly  and  rather  flippantly, 
much  to  the  disgust  of  some  and  to  the  joy  of  others 
in  the  class. 

The  Dutch  people  in  Holland  heard  of  Hudson's  voy- 
age, and  a  company  of  merchants  of  that  country  hired 
Captain  Hudson  to  see  if  he  could  find  a  passage  from 
Amsterdam  in  a  vessel  called  the  Half  Moon.     He  sailed 
and    sailed,   a   long   distance,    until    at   last   the   sailors 
became  so  tired  of  seeing  nothing  but  fog  and  ice,  that 
they  refused  to  go  any  farther. 
TEACHER:     What  corrections  have  you  to  make? 
ROBERT:       (Ignoring  her  question.)     I'd  like  to  know 
why  they  tried  to  get  through  the  northeast 
and  northwest.    Why  didn't  they  go  around 
South  America? 
TEACHER:     That  is  not  my  question.    Pupils,  have  you 

any  suggestions  about  Robert's  reading? 
PUPIL:     He  read  so  fast,  and  didn't  stop  at  periods, 

and  put  in  words. 
TEACHER:     Anything  else? 

ANOTHER  PUPID:    Yes,  he  left  out  "so"  and  "that.' 
TEACHER:    You  are  right.     Now  Catherine,  you  may 
read  the  next  two  paragraphs.    Robert,  you 
please  see  if  there  is  any  difference  between 
your  reading  and  Catherine's. 
The  pupil  read  with  ease  and  good  expression. 

Then  he  turned  his  ship  toward  the  coast  of  North 
America.  He  did  this  because  his  friend,  Captain  John 
Smith,  had  sent  him  a  letter,  with  a  map,  which  made 
him  think  that  such  a  passage  might  be  found.  Hudson 
reached  Chesapeake  Bay,  but  the  weather  was  so  stormy 


50  SILENT  READING 

that  he  did  not  think  it  safe  to  enter  it     He  sailed, 
instead,  northward  along  the  coast. 

In  September,  1609,  he  came  to  a  beautiful  bay  formed 
by  the  spreading  out  of  a  noble  river.  At  that  point 
the  stream  is  more  than  a  mile  in  width,  and  he  called 
it  the  "Great  River."  Not  far  from  its  mouth,  and  on 
the  eastern  side,  is  a  long  narrow  island.  The  Indians 
called  it  "Manhattan  Island."  Hudson  soon  noticed  that 
the  Great  River  had  hardly  any  current,  and  that  the 
tide  from  the  ocean  moved  with  great  force  into  the 
river.  This  made  him  think  it  was  a  salt  river.  Perhaps 
he  had  at  last  found  the  passage  he  was  seeking,  the 
passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

TEACHER:    Wouldn't  you  call  that  good  reading?  Have 

you  any  questions? 

PUPIL:         What  is  meant  by  a  "tide"! 
TEACHER:    It  is  the  rise  and  fall  of  water  every  now 

and  then. 

PUPIL:         I  don't  see  how  it  could  go  up  a  river. 
TEACHER:    We  will  take  that  up   in   our  geography 

lesson  some  day.    Benjamin,  you  may  read. 
The  pupil  read  fairly  well.     Not  more  than  five  of 
the  twenty-three  pupils  paid  attention  to  the  one  read- 
ing or  to  their  books. 

Hudson  was  greatly  pleased  with  all  he  saw,  and  he 
said,  "This  is  as  beautiful  a  land  as  one  can  tread  upon." 
He  soon  began  to  sail  up  the  stream,  wondering  what 
he  should  see,  and  whether  he  should  find  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  First  he  passed  the  Palisades,  a  great  natural 
wall  of  rock,  from  four  to  six  hundred  feet  high.  This 
extends  for  nearly  twenty  miles  along  the  western  shore 
of  the  river.  Then,  higher  up,  where  the  stream  breaks 
through  great  forest-covered  hills,  he  came  to  a  place 
which  we  call  the  Highlands. 

TEACHER:    Was  that  all  right! 


COMPREHENSION  51 

PUPIL:         Too   slow.      Do   you   suppose   the   Indians 

built  the  Palisades? 

TEACHER:     Why,  no;  they  were  always  there. 
PUPIL:         Is  a  " natural  wall"  a  stone  wall? 

As  the  teacher  seemed  not  to  appreciate  the  pupil's 
difficulty,  she  shook  her  head  and  smiled. 

Failure  to  utilize  the  pupil's  interests.  It  has  not 
seemed  worth  while  to  report  the  remainder  of  the 
lesson,  because  the  teacher  asked  the  same  type  of  ques- 
tions at  the  close  of  every  paragraph.  We  may  remark, 
however,  that  this  teacher  heard  almost  the  whole  les- 
son without  asking  a  question  that  would  test  the 
pupil's  comprehension,  arouse  his  interest,  or  stimulate 
his  appreciation.  She  missed  an  opportunity  to  in- 
crease the  children's  geographical  and  historical  knowl- 
edge of  the  Hudson  River,  Hudson  Bay,  England,  Hol- 
land, China,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  Chesapeake  Bay,  the 
Highlands,  and  Amsterdam.  It  is  evident  that  the 
terms  " English  bred,"  " natural  wall,"  "mountains 
of  ice,"  "tide,"  and  "salt  water"  were  not  understood. 
But  the  teacher's  greatest  error  was  in  ignoring  the 
boy's  question  as  to  why  Hudson  was  trying  for  a 
northwest  passage  to  Asia.  Had  this  question  been 
thoroughly  discussed  and  answered  by  the  pupils,  they 
would  have  comprehended,  as  never  before,  the  lack  of 
geographical  knowledge  during  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  certainly  they  could  have  been  led  to  a  keen  appre- 
ciation of  the  progress  made  in  that  field  of  knowledge 
since  then.  Besides,  the  answer  to  that  question  would 


52  SILENT  READING 

have  made  clear  the  motive  force  that  drove  Hudson 
on  and  on,  even  to  his  tragic  death.  The  teacher  over- 
looked all  such  possibilities;  she  emphasized  neither 
speed  nor  comprehension  in  reading.  The  tragedy  of 
the  whole  situation  is  that  such  teaching  is  today  not 
the  exception  but  the  rule  in  many  of  the  best  school 
systems.  What  may  it  be,  then,  in  many  of  the  villages 
and  rural  districts f 

The  teacher's  problem.  The  preceding  report  is 
indicative  of  what  happens  daily  during  the  reading 
period  in  many  of  our  schools.  Time  so  spent  is 
worse  than  wasted,  for  the  pupils  are  not  only  failing 
to  learn  anything  of  value,  but  they  are  forming  habits 
of  slothful,  careless  thinking  which  will  accompany 
them  through  life.  Teachers  who  accept  such  lessons 
fail  to  use  an  opportunity  to  stimulate  and  train  the 
minds  of  pupils;  they  fail  to  see  the  problem  of  how 
best  to  train  pupils  to  the  highest  possible  level  of 
achievement  in  getting  the  substance  of  an  article  at 
a  single  rapid  reading.  To  do  that  should  be  the 
aim  of  every  teacher  during  the  silent-reading  period. 
If  teachers  are  to  realize  that  aim  they  must  create  a 
desire  in  the  pupil  for  rapid  and  thoughtful  reading, 
and  use  only  those  methods  and  devices  which  will  tend 
to  make  speedy  and  purposeful  reading  a  habit. 

In  conjunction  with  creating  wholesome  reading  at- 
titudes and  habits  in  the  child,  methods  and  devices 
must  be  used  to  increase  his  vocabulary,  stimulate  his 
interests,  and  widen  his  experience  so  that  he  will 


COMPREHENSION  53 

be  able  to  apprehend  new  situations  more  accurately. 
Methods  of  developing  skill  in  thought-getting  are  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  IV,  and  many  sample  lessons  demon- 
strating how  this  may  be  secured  economically  appear 
in  Part  II.  In  every  lesson  the  child  should  be  given 
a  thorough  test  as  a  means  of  discovering  his  difficulties 
and  noting  his  progress. 

Yoakam's  experiment.1  Professor  Gerald  A.  Yoakam 
recently  demonstrated  by  experiment  that  comprehen- 
sion or  thought-getting  is  badly  neglected  in  some 
schools.  His  problem  was  the  determination  of  the 
value  of  a  single  reading. 

Yoakam  used  six  selections:  "The  Admiralty  Is- 
landers," "Tuberculosis/'  "Medieval  Castles,"  "Pea- 
nuts," "Chasing  a  Rainbow,"  and  "The  Government 
of  Switzerland,"  which  included  examples  of  narration, 
description,  and  exposition.  He  decided  that  this  wide 
range  of  subject-matter  used  with  a  large  number  of 
cases  would  insure  a  reasonably  accurate  measure  of  the 
value  of  a  single  reading  and  also  indicate  the  type  of 
material  that  pupils  most  readily  comprehend.  The 
experiment  was  conducted  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  grades;  the  results  represent  the  scores  made  by 
more  than  500  pupils.  An  initial  test  was  given  in 
order  to  determine  how  much  the  pupils  already  knew 
about  the  subject-matter,  so  that  the  value  of  a  single 

Yoakam,    Gerald    A.      "The   effect   of   a    single   reading."      (An 
excerpt    from    an    unpublished   doctor's   dissertation   offered    to   t 
State   University   of   Iowa   in   1920.)      Twentieth    Yearbook   of   f*0 
National   Society    for   the   Study    of   Education:    Part    11. 
School   Publishing   Company,   Bloomingrton,   Illinois.   1 


54  SILENT  READING 

reading  might  be  isolated.  The  pupils  were  asked  to 
read  the  article  through  once,  and  were  then  subjected 
to  a  thorough  written  test. 

The  results  of  a  single  reading  of  "The  Admiralty 
Islanders"  by  pupils  in  each  of  the  grades  is  given 
here  in  terms  of  the  average  scores  of  each  grade. 

GRADE  VIII  VII  VI  V  IV 

20.9%          19%          16.6%          14.6%          7.5% 

The  results  obtained  when  the  pupils  read  the  other 
five  articles  once  and  were  immediately  given  a  written 
test  are  further  evidence  of  their  inability  to  grasp  tin 
main  points  of  a  lesson  at  a  single  reading.  The  fol- 
lowing figures  are  the  average  scores  made  by  pupils 
of  the  sixth-grade  class  after  reading  the  articles  in- 
dicated. The  results  were  obtained  by  subtracting  the 
score  made  on  the  initial  test  from  that  made  on  the 
immediate-recall  test.  It  may  be  observed  that  the 
average  score  made  by  pupils  who  read  the  simplest 
narrative  material,  "Chasing  a  Rainbow,"  was  only 
one-third  of  the  possible  score. 


\\ 

ARTICLE  SCORE 

Tuberculosis         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         16.8% 

Medieval   Castles 21.1% 

Peanuts      . .        . .         , .        25.6% 

Government  of  Switzerland     ,.         ..         ..  23.9% 

Chasing  a  Rainbow        33.2% 

Germane's  experiments.1  Additional  data  which 
corroborate  the  trustworthiness  of  Yoakam's  findings 

1Germane,  Edith  G.  "Relationship  between  speed  and  compre- 
hension in  silent  reading."  (An  unpublished  master's  dissertation 
offered  to  the  State  University  of  Iowa  in  1920.) 


COMPREHENSION 

are  contained  in  a  study  by  Edith  G.  Germane,  in 
which  she  determined  the  value  of  a  single  reading, 
plus  what  the  pupils  might  have  already  known  about 
the  subject.  She  conducted  her  experiment  in  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades  of  two  schools  in  a  repre- 
sentative Iowa  city.  The  286  pupils  who  took  part 
in  the  study  were  asked  to  read  carefully  a  nine-page 
article  on  " Peanuts."  After  a  single  reading  they 
were  given  a  test  on  the  material  read.  The  results 
of  this  experiment  are  summarized  below. 

TABLE  III 

(Possible   score  58   points.) 

GRADE  VI                 VII  VIII 

Range  0-30              3-38  6-38 

Average  in  points  11.2               15.4  19.8 

Average  in  per  cent  18.3                26.5  34.1 

The  table  shows  that  the  number  of  correct  answers 
made  by  the  pupils  in  the  sixth  grade  ranged  from 
0  to  30.  Some  pupils  were  unable  to  answer  a  single 
question  at  the  end  of  a  single  reading;  the  highest 
score  was  30  points  out  of  a  possible  58.  The  average 
score  of  the  pupils  in  this  grade  was  11.2  points  or 
18.3  per  cent  of  the  possible  score.  A  careful  analysis 
of  these  data  shows  that  there  are  wide  individual 
differences  among  pupils  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  grades  and  that  the  result  of  a  single  reading 
by  those  pupils  is  on  an  average  comparatively  low. 

Germane 's  study  shows  a  higher  score  of  percentage 
value  for  the  pupils  who  read  the  article  through  once 


56  SILENT  READING 

than  does  Yoakam's  study.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  these  percentages  include  not  only  the 
gain  made  by  a  single  reading,  but  they  also  represent 
the  value  of  a  single  reading  plus  whatever  knowledge 
of  the  subject  the  pupil  may  have  had  before  reading. 
Both  studies  show  conclusively  that  when  one  considers 
the  present  reading  ability  of  children,  it  is  apparent 
that  a  single  reading  does  not  by  any  means  furnish 
sufficient  preparation  for  a  lesson.  Nevertheless,  the 
ideal  for  which  we  should  strive  is  to  have  pupils  show 
a  relatively  high  degree  of  ability  to  comprehend  and 
retain  what  they  read,  even  after  a  single  reading. 
We  believe  that  ideal  can  be  attained  by  systematic 
training  in  methods  of  study. 

Some  teachers  may  say  that  the  use  of  a  single  read- 
ing to  measure  children's  ability  to  comprehend  is 
unfair  and  impractical.  They  maintain  that  if  the 
pupils  had  been  given  an  opportunity  to  read  the  les- 
son at  least  three  times,  the  scores  would  have  shown 
that  they  have  much  thought-getting  ability.  That 
contention  is  refuted  by  data  obtained  in  an  experi- 
ment performed  by  the  authors.  It  consisted  of  three 
tests  given  450  pupils.  The  tests  were  based  on  the 
articles  " Immigration/'  " Peanuts, "  and  " Tubercu- 
losis. "  In  each  experiment  the  pupils  were  asked  to 
read  one  of  the  articles  through  as  many  times  as 
possible  in  a  thirty-minute  period.  They  were  informed 
that  at  the  conclusion  of  the  period  they  would  be 
given  a  thorough  written  test  on  the  article  read.  The 


COMPREHENSION 

findings  indicated  below  have  been  accepted  as  trust- 
worthy. 

TABLE  IV 

RESULTS   BASED  ON   READING  THE  ARTICLE  "PEANUTS" 
(Possible  score  58  points.) 

AVERAGE  AVERAGE  SCORE  AVERAGE  SCORE 

GRADE                              READINGS           IN  POINTS  IN  PER  CENT 

VI  3                        18  31% 

VII  4                        20  34% 

VIII  4                        26  45% 

RESULTS  BASED  ON  READING  THE  ARTICLE  "IMMIGRATION" 
(Possible  score  65  points.) 

AVERAGE  AVERAGE  SCORE  AVERAGE  SCORE 

GRADE                               READINGS            IN  POINTS  IN  PER  CENT 

VI  2                          14  21% 

VII  3                         17  26% 

VIII  3                        25  38% 

The  low  scores  reported  are  conclusive  proof  that 
pupils  have  little  ability  to  comprehend.  Some  people 
maintain  that  a  single  reading  of  an  assignment  is  not 
sufficient  preparation.  The  fact  that  sixth-grade  pupils 
answered  only  25.6  per  cent  of  the  questions  after 
reading  the  article  "Peanuts"  once  confirms  such  a 
contention.  But  does  frequent  re-reading  materially 
increase  the  number  of  thought  units  which  a  pupil  is 
likely  to  gain?  The  data  given  above  indicate  a 
negative  answer.  For  example,  sixth-grade  pupils  who 
read  the  lesson  an  average  of  three  times  answered  only 
31  per  cent  of  the  questions,  although  pupils  of  an- 
other sixth  grade  who  were  of  the  same  educational 
status,  as  determined  by  tests,  answered  25.6  per  cent 
of  the  questions  after  only  a  single  reading. 


58  SILENT  READING 

Although  these  comparisons  are  crude,  they  suggest 
that  it  is  not  the  number  of  readings  which  insures 
comprehension  and  retention,  but  rather  the  ability 
of  pupils  to  concentrate  and  understand.  The  in- 
ability of  pupils  to  understand  the  questions  asked  is 
shown  by  their  ludicrous  answers,  some  of  which  we 
have  reproduced  in  following  paragraphs.  Since  good 
reading  is  measured  largely  by  the  number  of  thought 
units  or  ideas  which  one  is  able  to  comprehend  in  a 
given  time,  instead  of  by  the  number  of  lines  read, 
the  problem  of  the  teacher  is  to  develop  skill  in  thought- 
getting.  Exercises  in  oral  and  silent  reading  should 
meet  this  important  need.  In  fact,  the  teacher  should 
emphasize  comprehension  during  both  the  study  hour 
and  the  recitation  period. 

A  comparison  of  these  scores  with  those  made  by 
pupils  of  like  grades  in  another  city  school  system 
who  read  the  article  only  once,  shows  that  the  results 
that  accrue  from  a  re-reading  are  not  commensurate 
with  the  extra  expenditure  of  time.  The  results  ob- 
tained by  testing  those  who  read  the  article  on  "Tu- 
berculosis" were  correspondingly  low.  Thus  there  is 
evidence  to  show  that  the  average  pupil  does  not  read 
efficiently,  or,  in  other  words,  that  he  does  not  know 
how  to  study. 

In  order  to  acquaint  the  reader  with  the  kind  of 
questions  used  in  the  experiment  just  described,  and 
to  show  what  kind  of  answers  some  pupils  gave  to 
those  questions,  we  give  the  following  excerpts  from 


COMPREHENSION  59 

the  material  used.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  answer  to  each  question  was  to  be  found  in  the 
assignment,  and  that  usually  an  entire  paragraph  was 
devoted  to  it. 


QUESTIONS  BASED  ON  THE  ARTICLE  "  PEANUTS " 

1.  How  long  are  peanut  vines  left  on  the  ground 

before  stacking? 
Correct  ansiver:  3  or  4  hours. 
Among  the  answers  given  by  6.4  per  cent  of  the 

pupils   were   the   following:    3   or  4   feet;    18 

inches;  2  feet;  3  or  4  weeks. 

2.  When  should  peanuts  be  planted? 

Correct  answer:   In  the  spring,  a  trifle  later  than 

beans  and  corn. 
Among  the  answers  given  by  5.1  per  cent  of  the 

pupils  were  the  following:    In  the  fall;  before 

the  late  frosts;  in  July. 

3.  What  should  be  the  distance  between  the  rows? 
Correct  answer:  36  inches. 

Among  the  answers  given  by  6.2  per  cent  of  the 
pupils  were  the  following:  36  feet;  6  inches; 
18  inches. 

4.  What  effect  does  the  peanut  have  on  the  soil? 
Correct  answer:  It  restores  nitrogen. 

Among  the  answers  given  by  9.3  per  cent  of  the 
pupils  were  the  following:  Hard  on  the  soil; 
takes  nitrogen  out  of  the  soil;  runs  down  the 
soil. 

5.  What  soil  is  best  suited  to  raising  peanuts? 
Correct  answer:  A  sandy  loam,  light  in  color. 
Among  the  answers  given  by  8.1  per  cent  of  the 

pupils    were   the    following:     Clay;    clay-loam, 


60  SILENT  READING 

black  mulch;  good  soil;  brownish  clay;  Iowa 
soiL 

QUESTIONS    BASED    ON    THE    ARTICLE    "IMMIGRATION" 

1.  Name  five  nationalities  that  came  from  northern 

Europe  by  thousands  immediately  after  the 
Civil  War  and  made  use  of  the  Homestead  Act. 

Correct  answer:  Norwegians,  Danes,  Swedes,  Ger- 
mans, and  Irish. 

Among  the  answers  given  by  7.7  per  cent  of 
the  pupils  were  the  following:  Italians, 
Serbians,  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hungarians,  and 
Turks. 

2.  To  which  of  these  nationalities  does  the  author 

give  special  praise? 
Correct  ansiver:    To  the   Scandinavians,   because 

they  became  thrifty  farmers  and  built  churches 

and  schools. 
The   following  answers  were  given  by   11.3   per 

cent  of  the  pupils:    To  the  Jews,  because  they 

are  good  cloth  makers;  to  the  Turks,  because 

they  peddled  stuff  cheaply;  to  the  Hungarians 

and  Serbians,  because  they  worked  on  railroads ; 

to  the  Irish,  because  they  engaged  in  politics; 

to  the  Chinese,  because  they  cheapened  laundry ; 

to  the  Italians,  because  they  have  fruit  stores. 

QUESTIONS  BASED  ON  THE  ARTICLE  "  TUBERCULOSIS " 

1.    What  effect  has  a  healthy  body  on  the  growth  of 

the  tuberculosis  germ! 
Correct  amwer:    Because  of  the  resistance  which 

it  offers,  it  is  an  unfavorable  place  for  their 

development. 
The  following  answers  were  given  by  13.3  per  cent 


COMPREHENSION 


61 


of  the  pupils:    Rich  food  for  the  germ;  body 
is  good  food  when  healthy. 
2.    What  is  the  effect  of  sunlight  on  the  tubercle 

bacillus  ? 

Correct  answer:   Kills  the  germ. 
The   following   answers  were   given   by   10.6   per 
cent  of  the  pupils:    Makes  them  grow;  a  fine 
thing  for  germs;  all  germs  need  heat  and  sun- 
light; causes  them  to  multiply  rapidly. 

The  above  answers  would  serve  for  amusement  did 
they  not  indicate  the  reading  comprehension  ability  of 
a  large  number  of  pupils.  If  the  data  in  this  chapter 
do  not  convince  one  that  school  children  have  little 
ability  to  comprehend  what  they  read,  one  should  make 
an  assignment  of  factual  reading  material,  then  sub- 
ject the  pupils  to  a  reasonable  test.  The  results  may 
surprise  both  teacher  and  pupils.  No  one  factor  in 
reading  so  handicaps  a  pupil  in  life  as  his  inability  to 
comprehend  what  he  reads. 

Comprehension  may  be  improved.  The  responsi- 
bility for  promoting  improvement  in  the  ability  to 
comprehend  rests  almost  entirely  with  the  teacher, 
since  efficiency  in  speed  and  comprehension  is  largely 
the  result  of  training.  Miss  Mabel  Green,  third-grade 
teacher  in  the  experimental  school  of  the  State  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa,  conducted  an  experiment1  in  one  of 
her  classes  which  shows  that  teachers  can  increase  the 
pupils'  ability  to  read  rapidly  and  to  comprehend. 


,  Mabel.  "The  effect  of  specific  drill  exercises  In  silent 
reading-."  (An  unpublished  study  prepared  at  the  State  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa  in  1918.) 


62  SILENT  READING 

At  the  beginning  of  the  month  the  teacher  gave  the 
pupils  a  story  to  read.  From  that  she  determined  their 
reading  rate;  she  measured  their  comprehension  ability 
by  means  of  a  written  test.  During  the  rest  of  the 
month  the  teacher  daily  gave  special  drill  exercises 
emphasizing  speed  and  comprehension,  and  used  mod- 
ern devices  and  lessons  to  keep  the  pupils  working  at 
their  highest  level  of  achievement.  At  the  end  of  the 
month  she  again  tested  the  pupils  for  speed  and  com- 
prehension. 

The  result  of  a  month's  specialized  drill  was  indeed 
encouraging.  At  the  beginning  of  the  month  the  aver- 
age rate  of  reading  was  180  words  per  minute.  On 
the  second  test,  at  the  end  of  the  month,  the  rate  was 
240  words  per  minute,  an  average  gain  of  33  per  cent. 
The  gain  in  comprehension  was  even  more  striking. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  month  the  average  score  was 
18,  at  the  end  29,  a  gain  of  61  per  cent. 

The  most  astonishing  fact  which  the  experiment  re- 
vealed is  that  the  gain  in  comprehension  was  much 
greater  than  the  gain  in  speed.  In  fact,  it  was  almost 
twice  as  great.  One  should  expect  a  gain  in  both, 
but  to  have  so  great  an  increase  in  comprehension  is 
certainly  encouraging  to  teachers.  However,  it  is  not 
to  be  assumed  that  such  progress  can  be  made  monthly 
in  this  grade  or  any  other.  Miss  Green  is  a  teacher 
of  rare  ability  who  worked  under  ideal  conditions. 

Stone  and  Colvin's  experiment.1    This  investigation 

'Stone,  C.  W.,  and  Colvin,  Carl.  "How  to  study  as  a  source 
of  motive  in  educational  psychology."  Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  VoL  11,  (September)  1920. 


COMPREHENSION 


63 


showed  that  when  one  employs  a  correct  method  and 
uses  the  factor  of  interest,  speed  and  comprehension  in 
silent  reading  may  be  greatly  increased  in  a  relatively 
short  time.  The  study  extended  over  a  period  of 
eighteen  weeks  and  was  made  on  forty-five  subjects, 
undergraduate  students  of  educational  psychology  in 
the  University  of  Illinois.  The  motive  and  chief  topic 
of  interest  in  the  course  was  the  subject  "How  to 
Study."  Having  been  asked  to  list  the  factors  which 
they  thought  most  affect  the  efficiency  of  study,  the 
students  unanimously  agreed  that  increasing  the  ability 
to  read  silently  affords  most  help  in  improving  study 
habits.  Two  plans  were  used  to  obtain  the  desired 
help:  (1)  Controlled  practice,  i.  e.,  reading  for  a 
specific  purpose  when  under  time  pressure,  (2)  a  study 
of  the  psychology  of  the  silent-reading  process.  The 
chief  topics  of  study  were: 

Reading  as  a  tool  of  study. 

The  relation  of  rate  to  comprehension. 

The  importance  of  adequate  motivation. 

The  relation   of   reading  to   language  instinct. 

The  element  of  habit  in  reading. 

The  perception  of  meaning. 

Eye-movements. 

The  effect  of  articulation. 

The  neurone-synapse-bond  hypothesis. 

The  work  curve. 

The    controlled    practice    consisted    of    reading 
works  on  educational  psychology  for  thirty  fifty-minute 
periods,    (2)   such  material  as  usually  appears  on  the 


64  SILENT  READING 

first  page  of  "The  Outlook"  for  an  additional  five 
periods.  About  twenty  units  of  the  time  used  for  read- 
ing works  on  educational  psychology  were  spent  on 
comparatively  easy  books  such  as  Kirkpatrick 's  Indi- 
viduals in  the  Making,  Strayer  and  Norsworthy's  How 
to  Study,  and  Seashore's  Psychology  in  Daily  Life. 
The  remaining  ten  units  of  practice  in  reading  educa- 
tional psychology  were  spent  on  Thorndike's  Briefer 
Course  in  Psychology. 

Results  of  the  experiment.  As  measured  by  a  test 
on  the  reading  of  educational  psychology,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  increased  their  capabilities  by  more 
than  one-half.  As  measured  by  Monroe's  Standardized 
Silent-reading  Test  with  Stone's  Extensions,  the  aver- 
age score  in  rate  of  reading  after  practice  and  study 
was  74  per  cent  greater  than  the  score  made  before. 
The  score  in  comprehension  after  practice  and  study 
was  84  per  cent  greater  than  that  made  before. 
These  students  gained  almost  three  times  as  much  in 
rate  of  speed,  and  fully  three  and  one-half  times  as 
much  in  rate  of  comprehension,  as  those  members  of 
a  check  class  who  did  not  receive  the  special  practice 
and  training  in  silent  reading.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  experiment,  the  average  student  who  did  the 
practice  and  study  had  180  per  cent  of  the  rate 
ability  of  a  group  of  405  students  who  did  not  re- 
ceive the  special  training. 

Some  students  made  gains  of  more  than  190  per 
cent  in  comprehension  and  160  per  cent  in  speed. 


COMPREHENSION 


65 


Contrary  to  the  usual  experience,  the  students  with 
the  lowest  initial  scores  made  the  greatest  gains,  a 
phenomenon  that  the  authors  are  unable  to  account 
for. 

The  reports  of  students  who  took  part  in  this 
experiment  show  that  some  benefited  from  one  fea- 
ture of  it,  others  benefited  from  other  features.  This 
was  to  be  expected  because  of  the  different  features 
included  in  the  experiment.  The  adage,  "  Nothing 
succeeds  like  success/*  found  a  counterpart  in  the 
new  one,  " Nothing  aids  reading  like  reading. "  One 
factor  responsible  for  the  successful  outcome  of  the 
undertaking  was  the  requirement  that  each  student 
read  a  certain  piece  of  material  for  a  definite  length 
of  time.  Under  the  stimulus  of  this  exercise  the 
students  did  more  reading  in  educational  psychology 
than  they  ordinarily  would  have  done.  That  helped 
to  increase  reading  ability.  Following  a  definite 
program  and  exerting  an  effort  to  concentrate  while 
reading  seemed  to  be  the  causes  chiefly  responsible 
for  the  increased  rate  of  speed  and  the  increasd  ability 
to  comprehend  what  was  read. 

The  experiment  in  the  high  school.  A  similar  ex- 
ercise conducted  with  a  class  of  high-school  boys 
seems  to  prove  the  same  fact.  Apparently  unable 
to  concentrate,  the  boys  were  reading  their  lessons 
several  times  in  an  effort  to  master  the  content,  but 
nevertheless  they  continued  unable  to  get  satisfactory 
results.  After  a  few  weeks  of  directed  practice  these 


66  SILENT  READING 

high-school  students  were  able  to  get  the  thought 
from  the  text  in  much  less  time  than  formerly,  and 
their  rate  of  speed  also  increased  noticeably.  The 
students  themselves,  at  first  believing  that  the  slower 
readers  got  more  from  the  text  than  did  the  faster 
ones,  changed  their  opinions  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
experiment. 

SUMMARY 

1.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  train  pupils  to  read 
purposefully  and  with  a  high  degree  of  comprehension. 

2.  Developing  the  ability  to  get  thought,  and  skill  in  doing 
BO,    have    been    neglected.     This    is   shown    by    Horace 
Mann's  Report  as  well  as  by  scientific  data. 

3.  Some  of  the  present  methods  of  teaching  reading  are 
responsible  for  the   inability  of  pupils  to  comprehend, 
since  many  reading  periods  are  devoted  only  to  hearing 
pupils  read  without  any  attempt  to  test  comprehension. 

4.  The    teachers'    problem    is    twofold:      The    development 
of  an  attitude  or  desire  for  purposeful,  thoughtful  read- 
ing.    The  discovery  of  methods  and  -devices  that   will 
most  efficiently  develop  the  ability  to  comprehend. 

5.  The  value  of  a  single  reading  as  an  aid  to  comprehen- 
sion  and   memory   is   low.     On   one   occasion   even   the 
reading  of   the   assignment   three   times   did   not   yield 
results   commensurate   with   the   time   and   effort   spent. 

6.  The   ridiculous  answers  given   by   many   pupils  clearly 
demonstrate  their  low  comprehension  power. 

7.  Rate  of  reading  and  the  ability  to  comprehend  can  be 
greatly  increased  in  a  short  time. 

8.  The  chief  function  of  silent  reading  is  to  teach  pupils 
how  to  study  effectively. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Fordyce,  Charles.  "Testing  efficiency  in  reading."  Addresses 
and  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association, 
Vol.  55,  pp.  818-21,  (July)  1917. 


COMPREHENSION 


67 


Gray,  Clarence  T.  Types  of  Reading  Ability  as  Exhibited 
Through  Tests  and  Laboratory  Experiments.  Supplemen- 
tary Educational  Monographs,  Vol.  1,  No.  5,  (August) 
1917.  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago. 

Gray,  William  S.  "Principles  of  method  in  teaching  read- 
ing, derived  from  scientific  investigations."  The  Eighteenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Edu- 
cation: Part  II.  Public  School  Publishing  Company, 
Bloomington,  Illinois,  1919. 

Huey,  Edmund  B.  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading. 
The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  1916. 

Judd,  Charles  H.  Measuring  the  Work  of  the  Publi( 
Schools.  Publication  of  the  Survey  Committee  of  the 
Cleveland  Foundation,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1916. 

Oberholtzer,  E.  E.  "Testing  the  efficiency  of  reading  in  the 
grades."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  15,  (February) 
1915. 

Peters,  Charles  C.  "The  influence  of  speed  drills  upon  the 
rate  and  effectiveness  of  silent  reading."  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Psychology,  Vol.  8,  (June)  1917. 

Thorndike,  Edward  L.  "Reading  as  reasoning:  A  study 
of  mistakes  in  paragraph  reading."  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  Vol.  8,  (June)  1917. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DEVELOPING  THE  ABILITY  TO  ORGANIZE 

The  importance  of  organization.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  in  the  preceding  chapters  that  the  silent-reading 
period  should  be  used  to  develop  speed  and  thought- 
getting,  if  pupils  are  to  learn  how  to  study  effectively. 
The  superior  student  is  one  who  has  acquired  a  third 
important  skill,  namely,  the  ability  quickly  and  effec- 
tivel>\  to  organize  the  subject-matter  read.  The  term 
organization,  as  here  used,  includes  making  outlines 
and  summaries  and  having  pupils  prepare  lists  of 
questions  which  they  consider  leading  ones. 

The  importance  of  developing  the  ability  of  pupils 
to  organize  can  scarcely  be  overemphasized.  McMur- 
ry's  How  to  Study  devotes  forty-nine  pages  to  the 
discussion  of  organization.  Psychologists  have  done 
much  valuable  research  in  the  field  of  the  higher  men- 
tal processes.  The  results  of  their  investigations  include 
the  establishment  of  many  basic  principles  in  the  science 
and  art  of  organization. 

The  psychological  point  of  view.  From  a  psycho- 
logical point  of  view,  training  in  the  organization  of 
subject-matter  is  urged  because  it  requires  the  pupil 
to  analyze,  select,  and  synthesize.  It  requires  much 

68 


ORGANIZATION 


69 


concentration,  judgment,  evaluation,  and  association  and 
is  considered  one  good  test  of  general  intelligence. 
Organization  is  a  great  aid  to  memory  or  retention. 
To  the  degree  that  a  lesson  or  discussion  is  well 
organized,  to  that  degree  each  minor  point  is  seen  in 
its  proper  relation  to  the  major  idea,  and  each  major 
thought,  in  its  relation  to  the  whole.  The  love  of 
rhythm  is  said  to  be  instinctive,  and  for  that  reason 
applied  psychology  urges  the  organization  of  a  lecture 
or  lesson  in  the  most  logical  manner  so  that  the  pre- 
ferred paths  may  function. 

The  sociological  point  of  view.  Nor  is  the  ability 
to  organize  of  secondary  importance  when  considered 
from  the  sociological  point  of  view.  How  many  men 
and  women  are  failing  in  their  several  vocations  every 
day,  not  so  much  because  of  some  defect  in  person- 
ality, but  because  organization  is  sadly  lacking  in  every 
proposition  which  they  set  forth?  The  fundamental 
principle  in  public  speaking  is  organization.  Because 
organization  is  of  great  consequence  in  life,  both  in 
and  out  of  school,  one  feels  justified  in  testing  pupils 
to  see  how  much  organizing  ability  they  have,  and 
how  that  ability  may  be  developed. 

Present  lack  of  ability  to  organize.  The  inability 
of  many  grade  pupils  to  organize  the  main  points  of 
a  lesson  under  headings  and  subheadings  is  very  notice- 
able in  many  schools.  Teachers  do  not  seem  to  realize 
that  training  pupils  and  developing  in  them  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  worth  of  organization  is  one  effective 


70  SILENT  READING 

method  of  building  up  good  study  habits.  Toe 
pupils  are  not  made  to  feel  that  they  are  ex 
to  organize,  weigh,  and  discriminate  in  their  n 
The  usual  assignment,  "Take  the  next  four  pa 
the  chapter,"  does  not  even  suggest  the  possibilil 
many  of  the  statements  may  be  of  minor  impc 
and  a  few  of  major  importance.  Making  a  p 
assignment  stimulates  the  child  to  see  for  himsel: 
sentences  in  the  lesson  are  most  worth  while. 

Some  teachers  make  a  specific  assignment  of 
or  four  questions.  These  questions  act  as  guides 
pupil's  reading;  they  form  the  topics  for  dis< 
in  the  next  recitation  period.  Pupils  thus  lej 
discriminate  between  points  having  little  or  much 
ing  on  the  question  before  them.  After  a  few 
of  such  training,  summaries  can  be  made  at  th 
of  a  recitation  period.  The  teacher  and  pup 
gether  sum  up  the  main  points  in  the  lesson  tha 
brought  out  or  that  should  be  discussed.  Havii 
section  of  a  class  prepare  the  questions  for  a 
section  to  evaluate  is  an  effective  device.  Organ 
can  best  be  taught  in  connection  with  some  class 
lem  or  project  in  which  each  pupil  gathers  a  d 
amount  of  data  and  sifts  much  reading  materi 
points  bearing  specifically  on  his  phase  of  the  pr 

Although    this    chapter    makes    the    point    th; 

•ilnlitv       t  /  k      iliw'O'i  MI  i  M  <)  1 1>       •»»!/!       t/\      /M»rro  n  i  9  A      tYin      m 


ORGANIZATION  71 

O&en,  neither  assignment  nor  recitation  period  is  util- 
ized to  help  the  pupil  acquire  this  important  skill. 

Germane 's  experiment.1  Data  obtained  by  means  of 
two  quite  elaborate  experiments  seem  to  prove  con- 
clusively that  grade  pupils  deplorably  lack  the  ability 
to  organize  what  they  read.  One  of  these  was  con- 
ducted in  grades  five  to  nine,  inclusive,  of  the  elemen- 
tary and  junior-high  schools  of  the  State  University 
of  Iowa,  with  this  problem  in  mind:  What  is  the 
value  of  making  a  summary-outline  of  an  article  as 
compared  with  the  results  to  be  obtained  by  re-reading 
the  article.  The  pupils  in  the  grades  mentioned  were 
divided  into  two  groups  on  the  basis  of  their  intelli- 
gence quotients.  Each  section  was  given  a  nine-page 
article  on  hygiene  to  study  for  thirty  minutes.  One 
section  was  asked  to  read  the  article  through  once, 
then  to  make  a  summary-outline  of  the  main  points. 
The  pupils  were  allowed  to  refer  to  the  article  as  often 
as  necessary  when  making  their  outlines.  The  other 
section  was  asked  to  re-read- the  article  as  many  times 
as  possible  during  the  thirty-minute  period.  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  period  both  sections  were  given  the 
same  quiz  for  fifteen  minutes. 

Because  this  experiment  was  conducted  in  only  one 
school  and  with  only  one  kind  of  subject-matter,  too 
much  emphasis  should  not  be  placed  on  the  results. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  group  which  re-read 

Germane,  Charles  E.     "The  value  of  summarizing  as  a  method 
of   study."      (An    unpublished    doctor's    dissertation    offered    to   1 
State  University   of  Iowa   in    1920.) 


72  SILENT  READING 

the  article  showed  a  superiority  of  from  4.4  per  cent 
to  20.4  per  cent  over  the  other  pupils.  Papers  of  the 
pupils  who  wrote  summary-outlines  revealed  a  failure 
to  discriminate  between  points  of  major  and  minor 
importance,  and  a  waste  of  time  in  writing  verbose 
statements  where  a  word  or  phrase  would  have  sufficed. 

Another  experiment  in  which  practically  the  same 
method  was  used  gave  similar  results.  During  this 
experiment  784  pupils  were  tested  on  three  types  of 
material.  The  data  obtained  by  this  experiment  also 
indicate  that  making  written  summary-outlines  as  a 
preparation  for  the  lesson  is  not  an  economical  method 
of  study  for  pupils  who  have  not  been  trained  in 
organization.  However,  as  shown  by  reliable  data 
reported  elsewhere  in  this  chapter,  organization  can  be 
taught  even  to  fourth-grade  pupils;  when  that  is  done 
summarizing  becomes  a  valuable  aid  to  study  after  the 
child  acquires  the  method. 

Finch's  experiment.1  This  was  conducted  in  a 
junior  high  school  in  Rochester,  New  York.  It  orig- 
inated in  an  attempt  to  aid  the  pupils  in  making  "Tin- 
most  effective  use  of  the  time  for  study  provided  by 
the  longer  periods  and  the  lengthened  school  day." 
Four  tests  were  given,  each  based  on  a  regular  text- 
book, thus  providing  for  future  tests  of  similar  char- 
acter by  means  of  which  the  progress  of  each  pupil  may 
be  traced.  The  reasons  for  giving  these  tests  to  pupils 
entering  the  junior  high  school  were  (a)  to  make  them 

*Finch,  Charles  E.  "Junior  high-school  study  tests."  School 
Review,  Vol.  28.  (March)  1920. 


ORGANIZATION  73 

aware  of  certain  things  that  they  ought  to  know  about 
studying,  (b)  to  create  a  desire  for  instruction  in  thd 
best  way  of  studying,  (c)  to  suggest  to  teachers  the 
needs  of  the  class  and  of  individuals  as  a  basis  for 
possible  and  desirable  kinds  of  instruction.  Because 
only  one  of  the  four  tests  dealt  specifically  with  the 
problem  of  organization,  only  that  part  of  the  experi- 
ment is  reported  here. 

The  fourth  test  was  planned  to  bring  out  the  fol- 
lowing points:  (a)  Ability  to  select  the  important 
things  told  in  a  paragraph;  (b)  ability  to  write  intelli- 
gent questions  about  a  paragraph;  (c)  ability»to  collect 
the  information  suggested  by  a  simple  outline.  In 
order  to  show  the  nature  of  the  test  and  the  method 
of  using  it,  the  following  specimen  is  taken  verbatim 
from  the  material  used  for  the  experiment. 

Textbook  used:     Woodburn  and  Moran's  Introduction 
to  American  History. 

DIRECTIONS 

I.     Open  your  book  and  follow  the  directions  given. 
II.     1.     State  in  your  own  words  three  important 
things  told  in  the  paragraph  on  the  Phoeni- 
cians, found  on  page  11.  3  credits 

2.  Write  three  questions  that  you  would  ask  a 
pupil  if  you  wanted  to  find  out  whether  he 
knew  the  important  facts  in  the  first  para- 
graph on  the  Egyptians,  on  page  4.    3  credits 

3.  On  pages  8  and  9  find  the  information  called 
for  in  the  following  outline,  and  state  it  in 
your  own  words: 


74  SILENT  READING 

Chaldeans 

a)  Location   of   their  country  1  credit 

b)  Occupations  of  the  people  1  credit 

c)  The  ruler  and  his  gardens  1  credit 

d)  Some  things  the  Chaldeans  did  1  credit 

The   following  summary  gives  an  idea  of  how  the 
ability  to  follow  these  simple  directions  for  organizing 
varied  among  seventh-grade  pupils.    It  is  evident  that 
the  pupils  were  lacking  in  the  ability  to  discriminate 
between   points  of  major  and  minor  importance,  and 
to   make  a  summary-outline   of  them.     Eight   classes 
which   included   256   pupils   took   part  in   the   experi- 
ment.    The  average  score  of  lowest  achievement   for 
any  one  class  was  20  per  cent.     The  average  score  of 
highest  achievement  for  any  one  class  was  80  per  cent. 
The  average  score  made  by  the  eight  classes  was  60 
per  cent.    Following  an  examination  of  the  papers  and 
a    study    of    the    results    obtained,    the    experimenter 
reached  the  following  conclusions:    Pupils  must  be  COB- 
vinced  that  getting  the  author's  meaning  from  a  printed 
page  is  quite  different  from  repeating  expressions  found 
there.     They  must  be  taught  to  eliminate  material  of 
minor    importance    from    their   consideration,    and    to 
give   important  matter  proper  attention.     The  ability 
to  formulate  intelligent  questions  is  an  indication  that 
the  student  has  some  knowledge  of  the  related  and 
essential    facts    in    the    material    under    consideration. 
Making  a  simple  outline  after  having  discovered   the 
essential  facts  is  a  great  help  in  memorizing  desirable 


ORGANIZATION 


75 


information.  Much  valuable  'time  can  be  saved  if 
pupils  have  an  adequate  knowledge  of  how  to  use 
textbooks.  Real  progress  is  the  result  of  wisely  directed 
individual  effort.  Pupils  must  be  convinced  that  it 
pays  to  give  careful  attention  to  all  directions  given 
by  the  teacher.  Teachers  should  help  pupils  realize 
that  studying  effectively  is  quite  different  from  study- 
ing anxiously.  It  is  easy  to  think  through  a  lesson 
if  a  carefully  prepared  outline  is  followed.  Making 
satisfactory  notes  helps  to  summarize,  to  select  essen- 
tial material,  and  to  gain  the  ability  to  reproduce  it. 
After  the  results  of  the  tests  had  been  carefully 
studied  by  the  teachers,  they  suggested  the  following 
remedial  measures  which  have  proved  effective  in  rais- 
ing the  efficiency  of  the  study  habits  of  these  pupils: 
(1)  Pupils'  questions  should  be  discussed  by  the  class 
and  those  of  minor  importance  rejected.  {2)  Drill 
should  be  given  in  the  use  of  chapter,  section,  and 
paragraph  headings.  (3)  Frequent  use  should  be  made 
of  co-operative  outlines  to  enable  pupils  to  summarize 
their  thoughts  and  select  important  facts.  (4)  Pnpils 
should  be  given  definite  references  to  paragraphs  and 
sections  that  they  are  asked  to  read,  and  they  should 
be  asked  to  list  the  important  facts  that  furnished  the 
desired  information.  (5)  Much  more  attention  should 
be  given  to  determining  whether  or  not  pupils  under- 
stand adult  expressions  used  in  textbooks.  (6)  Pupils 
should  be  required  to  prove  their  statements  by  refer- 
ence to  the  textbook.  This  helps  secure  accuracy  of 


76  SILENT  READING 

statement,  and  forces  children  to  acknowledge  their 
mistakes  when  made.  (7)  Practice  should  be  given  in 
using  the  textbook  to  find  definite,  information  sug- 
gested by  a  carefully  prepared  outline. 

One  teacher  indicates  that  the  tests  helped  her  to 
remember  that  the  assignment  should  serve  to  sta ti- 
the requirements  of  the  new  lesson,  and  to  suggest 
the  best  ways  of  studying  it.  They  also  help  her  to 
keep  in  mind  points  that  ought  to  be  emphasized  in 
silent  study,  to  modify  the  content  of  lesson  plans,  to 
supervise  silent  study  more  successfully  because  of 
having  more  clearly  in  mind  some  of  the  things  that 
ought  to  be  observed  while  a  class  is  studying,  and  to 
analyze  the  oral  responses  of  the  pupils  more  enV«-tivt>ly 
because  they  seem  to  reflect  study  habits. 

College  students  cannot  organize  their  lessons.  A 
cursory  examination  of  high-school  and  college  stu- 
dents' notebooks  reveals  the  lack  of  ability  to  organ  i/«» 
a  lesson  to  an  extent  commensurate  with  one's  expec- 
tations. 

The  authors  have  conducted  classes  in  education  and 
psychology  in  which  they  required  many  individual 
reports.  Each  student  was  told  that  he  should  sum- 
marize his  assignment  under  two  or  three  leading 
headings.  Often,  however,  much  to  the  disappoint- 
ment of  all,  the  student  used  most  of  the  next  recita- 
tion period  to  give  a  long  report,  in  which  he  em- 
phasized a  dozen  or  more  main  points,  as  he  thought. 
Such  experiences  are  not  uncommon,  even  in  the  best 


ORGANIZATION 


77 


colleges.  The  most  encouraging  feature  of  the  whole 
matter  is  that  the  power  to  organize  can  be  taught; 
it  is  largely  a  product  of  training.  It  is  surprising 
what  large  dividends  will  accrue  from  spending  a  few 
minutes  daily  for  a  few  weeks  helping  pupils  to 
organize  their  lessons.  Many  teachers  who  have  gone 
into  schools  of  good  scholastic  standards  have  felt  that 
the  emphasis  on  organization  for  the  first  three  or 
four  weeks  was  time  well  spent,  because  the  pupils 
rapidly  acquire  the  method,  and  the  acquirement  of 
the  method  helps  to  master  the  lesson. 

Teaching  how  to  organize.  That  organization  can 
be  taught  quickly,  and  that  such  teaching  will  yield 
fruitful  results,  is  shown  by  an  experiment  conducted 
in  the  elementary  school  of  the  State  University  of 
Iowa  in  which  sixteen  seventh  and  eighth-grade  pupils 
participated.  By  means  of  three  preliminary  tests 
the  sixteen  pupils  were  divided  into  two  groups  nearly 
equal  in  ability  to  organize  the  reading  lesson  and  to 
comprehend  it.  Three  thirty-minute  periods  were  used 
weekly  for  three  weeks  to  teach  one  group  organiza- 
tion and  the  method  of  summarizing.  The  other  group 
did  not  receive  such  special  training.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  three  new  assignments  were  used  to  test  the 
pupils'  ability  to  organize  and  comprehend.  It  was 
found  that  the  pupils  who  had  been  drilled  in  organi- 
zation not  only  made  much  neater  and  more  condensed 
summaries,  but  also  answered  an  average  of  21.3 
per  cent  more  questions  on  the  written  tests.  Or<rani- 


78  SILENT  READING 

zation  is  a  third  necessary  skill,  which,  combined  with 
speed  and  comprehension,  aids  in  making  the  finished 
product  in  study. 

Earhart's  experiment.1  The  problem  of  this  experi- 
ment was  to  find  out  if  pupils  in  the  fourth  grade,  i.  o. 
in  the  fourth  school  year,  can  be  trained  to  study  a 
lesson  independently.  The  class  selected  consisted  of 
twenty  pupils  of  average  ability.  Sixteen  lessons  were 
given,  each  lasting  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes. 
There  was  no  separate  period  for  the  study  of  the 
lesson.  The  problem  raised  the  following  questions: 
Can  pupils  state  aims  for  themselves  in  reading!  Can 
they  find  the  relatively  important  parts  of  the  subject- 
matter  readt  Can  they  question  the  validity  of  state- 
ments and  form  independent  judgments t 

For  three  weeks  previous  to  this  experiment  the 
class  had  been  reading  Lida  B.  McMurry's  Story  of 
Ulysses.  The  use  of  the  text  was  continued  during 
this  experiment  because  it  seemed  suitable  for  the 
purpose  in  mind.  The  first  lesson  was  based  on  the 
story  of  Ulysses  and  the  Plwacians.  After  some  pre- 
liminary conversation  about  the  needs  of  Ulysses  and 
the  experiences  he  had  previously  had  among  strange 
peoples,  the  teacher  stated  the  aim  thus:  "We  shall 
find  out  in  this  book  how  the  Phteacians  treated 
Ulysses."  The  children  read  silently  for  a  few  min- 
utes. They  used  a  marked  list  of  words  in  their  books 
to  determine  the  correct  pronunciation  of  proper  names. 

'Earhart,  Lida  B.  "An  experiment  in  teaching  children  tc 
study."  Education.  Vol.  30  (DD.  236-42).  1909-10. 


ORGANIZATION  79 

Other  proper  names,  and  words  which  the  pupils  could 
not  pronounce  without  assistance,  were  written  on  the 
blackboard  and  divided  into  syllables  by  the  teacher. 

The  teacher  then  asked  the  children  which  part  of 
the  story  they  would  tell  first,  if  they  were  asked  to 
relate  it.  Several  pupils  attempted  to  answer  but  could 
not  do  so  satisfactorily.  One  child  said,  "  Ulysses 
made  a  bed  of  leaves. "  Another  suggested  as  the  topic 
to  be  told  first,  "What  Ulysses  did  in  the  Phseacian 
land," 

In  response  to  the  teacher's  query  as  to  what  should 
be  told  next,  some  pupils  tried  to  tell  the  story  in- 
stead of  giving  a  topic.  Finally,  one  child  gave  for 
the  second  point,  "Ulysses  awakes."  The  fourth  topic 
suggested  was,  "What  the  king's  daughter  did  for 
Ulysses." 

The  pupils  then  read  the  selection  aloud.  At  inter- 
vals they  were  allowed  to  ask  questions  about  the 
story.  These  are  the  questions  asked:  "Why  did 
Nausicaa  take  her  maids  to  wash  clothes?"  "Why  did 
she  not  go  alone?"  "Why  did  the  king's  daughter 
go  at  all?"  "Why  did  the  maidens  walk?"  "There 
was  no  room  for  the  maidens,  but  why  did  Nausicaa 
work  and  drive  mules?" 

The  spontaneity  of  the  responses  to  the  questions  in 
the  first  lesson  indicated  clearly  that  the  pupils  were 
intensely  interested  in  the  subject-matter,  but  were 
unable  to  organize  the  other  parts  of  the  lesson  in 
sequence.  It  was  evident  that  training  in  evaluating 


80  SILENT  READING 

and  organizing  were  necessary.     The  following  lessons 
emphasized  this  factor. 

After  the  pupils  had  read  the  eight-page  booklet, 
entitled  Penelope  and  Teleniachus  During  Ulysses' 
Absence,  they  were  asked  to  name,  in  order,  the  things 
they  would  talk  about  if  they  were  telling  the  story 
to  some  one  at  home.  They  gave  the  following  outline 
very  promptly: 

The  princes  wish  to  marry  Penelope. 

Penelope  deceives  the  princes. 

Telemachus  holds  a  council. 

Telemachus  goes  to  inquire  about  Ulysses. 

Teleniachus  visits  Nestor. 

Telemachus  visits  Menelaus. 

The  suitors  make  ready  to  kill  Telemachu^ 

Penelope  hears  of  Telemachus'  absence. 

This  exercise  occurred  toward  the  close  of  the  series 
of  lessons.  Both  the  nature  of  the  topics  and  the 
readiness  with  which  they  were  given  were  evidence 
of  the  pupils1  gain  in  ability  to  discover  and  express 
the  important  thoughts  of  the  subject-matter.  It  will 
be  recalled  that  when  the  first  lesson  was  given,  the 
teacher  stated  the  aim  for  the  class. 

When  the  last  booklet  of  the  story  was  taken  up 
there  was  time  for  but  one  lesson  with  the  class,  so 
the  lesson  had  to  be  somewhat  hurried.  The  pupils 
had  already  stated  the  questions  to  be  answered,  and 
these  constituted  the  aims  in  reading  this  section. 
They  were  told  to  read  the  entire  eight-page  booklet 


ORGANIZATION  gj 

silently,  then  to  make  a  list  of  important  subjects  in 
it,  to  write  any  questions  which  they  wanted  answered, 
and  any  words  in  place  of  which  they  would  like  to 
have  other  words  used.  These  papers  were  written 
by  the  pupils  with  no  help  whatever,  except  in  regard 
to  spelling,  the  use  of  capital  letters,  and  punctuation. 
The  following  exercise,  given  just  as  it  was  prepared, 
shows  the  progress  made  from  the  time  the  first  lesson 
was  taught: 

Ulysses  awakes. 

Ulysses  and  the  swineherd. 

Ulysses  meets  Telemachus  again. 

Penelope  and  Telemachus. 

Penelope  and  the  beggar. 

The  nurse  recognizes  Ulysses. 

Penelope  gives  a  contest. 

Ulysses  tries  the  bow. 

The  death  of  the  suitors. 

Ulysses  rules  over  Ithaca  again. 

Why  did  Ulysses  go  to  the  swineherd? 

Why  did  Ulysses  beg  for  his  bread? 

Why  didn't  Ulysses  tell  Penelope  that  he  was  her 

husband  ? 
Why  did  Telemachus  go  to  the  house  of  Laertes  ? 

This  series  of  lessons  showed  plainly  that  pupils  in 
the  fourth  grade  are  capable  of  finding  problems  for 
themselves,  of  organizing  the  lesson,  of  asking  intelh 
gent  questions,  of  forming  sensible  hypotheses,  of  ex- 
ercising judgment  as  to  the  statements  made  by  the 
author,  of  mastering  formal  difficulties  for  themselves, 


82  SILENT  READING 

and  of  exercising  initiative  wisely  and  profitably.  It 
showed,  too,  that  when  pupils  work  in  such  a  way 
they  work  with  zeal,  and  accomplish  much  more  than 
when  they  spend  time  upon  useless  details  and  mechan- 
ical methods  of  working. 

As  to  their  using  the  factors  of  proper  study  habit- 
ually, the  time  was  too  short  to  permit  one  to  reach 
final  conclusions.  To  test  the  matter  thoroughly,  the 
class  should  be  trained  to  study  geography,  history,  and 
other  textbook  lessons  in  this  way  from  day  to  day 
throughout  a  number  of  months.  By  so  doing,  syste- 
matic study  of  the  different  subjects  would  be  intro- 
duced gradually,  and  the  work  in  each  class  would 
be  strengthened  by  what  is  done  in  the  others. 

Teaching  pupils  to  organize.  In  the  third  and 
fourth  grades,  stories  and  short  expositions  may  be 
used  as  drill  in  making  outlines.  Pupils  in  those 
grades  enjoy  being  called  upon  to  state  the  main 
points  made  by  the  teacher  in  her  talk  on  some  phase 
of  nature  study,  hygiene,  or  home  geography.  In 
fact,  class  summaries  made  with  the  teacher's  guid- 
ance are  economical  ways  to  clinch  the  main  points 
made  during  recitation  periods. 

By  the  time  the  pupils  are  well  advanced  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  grades  they  should  show  considerable 
skill  in  outlining  and  summarizing  lessons  in  nearly 
all  their  studies.  The  authors  have  often  promoted  a 
keen  interest  in  the  organization  of  lessons  by  dividing 
the  class  into  two  sections  and  having  one  section  pre- 


ORGANIZATION  g3 

pare  a  summary-outline  for  the  other  to  criticize. 
Pupils  at  this  age  enjoy  thinking  of  any  lesson  or 
lecture  as  having  just  one  central  idea,  comparable  to 
the  hub  of  a  wheel,  and  considering  all  the  points 
grouped  under  this  central  idea  as  so  many  spokes 
in  the  wheel.  This  clever  device  has  been  used  suc- 
cessfully in  high-school  classes,  in  which  the  teacher 
of  English,  history  or  science  requested  the  students 
to  state  what  they  considered  the  hub  and  spokes  of 
the  assignment.  A  diagram  on  the  blackboard  lends 
interest  to  such  a  plan. 

Having  the  pupils  use  the  last  five  minutes  of  a 
recitation  period  to  sum  up  the  main  points  brought 
out  in  the  recitation  is  another  very  valuable  practice. 
Notes  taken  in  this  way  for  a  few  weeks,  known  as  a 
class  summary,  greatly  aid  the  majority  of  pupils. 
Calling  for  an  oral  summary  of  the  previous  day's 
assignment  is  another  means  of  teaching  organization 
and  providing  a  comprehensive  review  for  all. 

The  preparation  of  summaries.  One  of  the  funda- 
mental aims  of  teachers  in  charge  of  seventh  anfl  eighth 
grades,  and  even  of  high-school  classes,  should  be  to 
train  pupils  in  making  outlines  and  in  writing  concise 
summaries  of  lessons  and  lectures.  A  knowledge  of 
many  facts  without  the  ability  to  classify,  organize, 
and  use  them  makes  such  knowledge  practically  worth- 
less. The  school  work  of  the  pupils  in  the  upper 
grades  is  so  varied  and  so  informational  that  no 
teacher  should  find  it  difficult  to  formulate  a  method 


g4  SILENT  READING 

for  teaching  organization  and  summarizing,  or  to  create 
a  favorable  attitude  toward  such  work  among  her 
pupils.  Some  of  the  devices  described  in  Chapter  XIV 
for  use  with  pupils  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  may 
be  used  very  successfully  in  the  higher  grades. 

Another  very  interesting  method  is  to  take  a  part 
of  each  class  period  for  finding  what  may  be  called 
the  "  sign  post  paragraph,"  that  is,  the  paragraph 
which  states  the  problem  or  trend  of  discussion  which 
the  author  has  in  mind.  Pupils  soon  learn  how  to 
find  the  signpost  or  key  to  the  lesson.  The  next  point 
of  interest  is  to  discover  a  way  to  determine  most 
quickly  the  author's  conclusions  and  his  answers  to 
the  problem  discussed.  Students  will  soon  learn  that 
reading  the  first  sentence  or  two  of  a  paragraph, 
possibly  also  the  last  one,  is  sufficient.  It  is  not  within 
the  province  of  this  chapter  to  elaborate  on  methods 
of  teaching  organization,  since  that  will  be  done  by 
presenting  specimen  lessons  in  Part  II.  The  aim  here 
is  only  to  point  out  the  possibility  of  teaching  organi- 
zation. * 

SUMMARY 

1.  The   importance   of  organization  and  summarizing,  the 
third  essential  factor  in  teaching  silent  reading,  has  not 
received  sufficient  consideration  by  teachers. 

2.  This  valuable  skill   is   lacking  amonj^-college  students 
and  grade  pupils.  ^s* 

3.  The  results  of  the  experiments  show  that  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  lesson  by  means  of  a  summary-outline  is  not 
economical  unless  the  pupil  has  been  trained  to  organize. 


ORGANIZATION  grj 

4.  Several  devices  useful  for  teaching  pupils  to  organize 
lesson  material  have  been  suggested.    The  authors  have 
found  those  very  useful  in  actual  trial. 

5.  The  results  of  a  study  made  on  sixteen  pupils  in  the 
experimental  school  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa  and 
of  studies  made  by  Earhart  and  by  Finch  suggest  that 
one  can  effectively  teach  pupils  to  organize  their  lessons. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Dearborn,  G.  V.  N.  How  to  Learn  Easily:  A  Book  for 
Students,  Teachers  and  Parents.  Little,  Brown  and  Com- 
pany, Boston,  1916. 

Dewey,  John.  How  We  Think.  D.  C.  Heath  and  Company, 
Boston,  1910. 

Earhart,  Lida  B.  Teaching  Children  to  Study.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1909. 

Foster,  William  T.  Should  Students  Study f  Harper  and 
Brothers,  New  York  City,  1917. 

Hall-Quest,  A.  L.  Supervised  Study.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, New  York  City,  1920. 

Holley,  Charles  E.  The  Teacher's  Technique.  The  Century 
Company,  New  York  City,  1922. 

Huey,  Edmund  B.  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Read- 
ing. The  Macmillan  Company,  1916. 

Klapper,  Paul.  Teaching  Children  to  Read.  D.  Appleton 
and  Company,  New  York  City,  1914. 

McMurry,  Frank  M.  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to 
Study.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1909. 

Parker,  S.  C.  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  School-s.  Ginn 
and  Company,  Chicago,  1915. 

Ruediger,  W.  C.  "Teaching  pupils  to  study."  Education, 
Vol.  29,  1909. 

Sandwick,  R.  L.  How  to  Study  and  What  to  Study.  D.  C. 
Heath  and  Company,  Boston,  1915. 

Whipple,  G.  M.  How  to  Study  Effectively.  Public  School 
Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1916. 


CHAPTER  V 

RETENTION 

The  importance  of  retention.  The  value  of  speed, 
comprehension,  and  organization  as  fundamental  fac- 
tors of  a  method  of  study  has  been  treated  in  the  three 
previous  chapters.  There  is  still  another  factor,  namely, 
retention,  which  is  of  equal  importance.  In  fact,  it 
is  the  ability  to  retain  and  recall  the  main  points  of 
the  material  read  which  makes  the  acquisition  and 
application  of  knowledge  possible.  Time  and  effort 
spent  in  developing  skill  in  rapid  reading  and  in 
organization  are  wasted  unless  the  essential  ideas  are 
retained. 

Experimental  studies  in  retention.  Ebbinghaus  has 
done  much  experimenting  to  determine  the  ability  to 
retain  nonsense  syllables,  and  his  rate  of  forgetting 
for  this  type  of  material  has  been  many  times  verified. 
He  found  that  when  a  series  of  those  syllables,  such 
as  "taz,"  "nmt,"  and  others  were  learned  to  the 
threshold  of  immediate  recall,  50  per  cent  were  for- 
gotten within  twenty-four  hours,  66%  per  cent  within 
eight  days,  and  80  per  cent  within  one  month.  But 
the  application  of  this  law  to  logical,  factual  mate- 
rial is  unscientific,  because  nonsense  material  does  not 

86 


RETENTION  gy 

lend  itself  readily  to  the  laws  of  interest  and  associa- 
tion. 

Peterson's,  experiment.1  This  attempt  to  determine 
the  effect  of  attitude  on  immediate  and  delayed  recall 
is  significant  in  any  discussion  of  retention.  In  brief, 
the  problem  was,  "What  difference  will  it  make  in 
later  reproduction  whether  a  person  knows  or  does 
not  know,  while  reading  a  list  of  words,  that  he  will 
be  asked  to  reproduce  the  words.  " 

Peterson's  method  of  conducting  this  experiment  was 
in  the  main  as  follows  :  The  students  in  his  psychology 
class  were  asked  to  copy  twenty  words  as  he  read 
them.  No  other  directions  were  given.  After  a  few 
minutes  those  students  were  asked  to  copy  another 
list  of  twenty  words,  equally  as  difficult  as  the  previous 
list.  This  time  the  class  was  informed  that  each  would 
be  ranked  according  to  the  number  of  words  he  was 
able  to  recall. 

The  result  of  the  experiment  showed  that  in  the 
second  case  the  students  recalled  an  average  of  50 
per  cent  more  words  than  in  the  first.  Peterson  attri- 
butes this  gain  to  the  "mental  set"  of  his  students 
who  knew  they  would  be  called  upon  to  remember 
as  many  words  as  possible. 

Ebert  and  Meumann  also  found  that  the  attitude 
of  the  learner,  his  "will  to  learn,"  exercises  an  im- 
portant influence  over  his  whole  memory  result. 


^Peterson,    Joseph.      "The   effect   of   attitude    on 
delayed    reproduction:      A    class    experiment.        Journal 
cational  Psychology,   Vol.    7,    (October)    1916. 


gg  SILENT  READING 

These  studies  reveal  one  outstanding  pedagogical 
principle  which  every  teacher  should  apply:  The 
pupil  reads  most  effectively  when  he  realizes  that  he 
is  expected  to  recall  the  main  points  of  the  material 
read.  This  necessitates  testing  on  the  assignments 
by  means  of  either  short,  brisk,  oral  reviews  or  written 
quizzes.  If  the  subject-matter  read  is  of  sufficient 
importance  to  be  studied,  the  recall  of  its  fundamental 
facts  should  be  assured. 

Yoakain's  experiment.  Probably  the  most  elaborate 
recent  experiment  that  can  be  cited  in  this  discussion 
of  retention  is  Yoakam's  study,  "The  Effect  of  a 
Single  Reading."1  Yoakam  has  attempted  to  deter- 
mine scientifically  the  relative  values  of  certain  fac- 
tors of  study  on  recall  or  memory.  This  experiment 
was  conducted  in  grades  four  to  eight  inclusive,  and 
represents  the  results  of  more  than  500  cases. 

Reading  tests  were  used  to  classify  the  pupils  of 
each  grade  into  groups  of  equal  comprehension  ability 
in  silent  reading.  One  group  read  the  assignment 
through  once  rapidly,  but  very  carefully,  and  then 
was  immediately  subjected  to  a  test  on  the  content. 
The  other  group  read  the  same  article  through  once, 
rapidly  and  very  carefully,  but  no  test  was  given 
until  twenty  days  later,  when  this  group  took  the 
test  that  had  been  taken  by  the  other  section.  Neither 


,  Gerald  A.  "The  effect  of  a  single  reading."  (An 
excerpt  from  an  unpublished  doctor's  dissertation  offered  to  the 
State  University  of  Iowa  in  1920.)  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  II.  Public 
School  Publishing  Company,  Bloominitton.  Illinois.  1921. 


RETENTION  39 

group  knew  that  a  test  would  be  given.  The  scores 
made  by  these  two  groups  ought  to  be  an  approximate 
measure,  at  least,  of  the  value  of  a  single  reading  on 
an  immediate  recall,  and  on  a  recall  delayed  twenty 
days. 

Immediate  recall.  The  amount  the  several  grades 
were  able  to  recall  immediately,  after  the  single  read- 
ing of  an  article  entitled  "The  Admiralty  Islanders," 
is  as  follows: 

GRADE  VIII  VII  VI  V  IV 

20.9%  19%  16.6%          14.6%          7.5% 

If  these  figures  are  to  be  accepted  at  their  face 
value,  then  at  least  two  conclusions  may  be  drawn: 
(1)  A  single  reading  is  not  sufficient  preparation  for 
a  lesson.  (2)  Pupils  lack  the  ability  to  recall  any 
considerable  portion  of  the  material  read.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  the  authors,  however,  that  a  single  reading 
would  suffice  if  pupils  were  trained  in  methods  and 
devices  which  insure  retention. 

Delayed  recall.  One  should  keep  in  mind  that  the 
other  group  of  pupils  also  read  the  article  "The  Ad- 
miralty Islanders"  through  once,  but  that  the  children 
were  not  tested  until  twenty  days  later.  It  was  thought 
that  this  procedure  would  give  an  approximate  measure 
of  the  amount  of  an  assignment  that  pupils  usually 
remember  when  it  has  been  read  once,  and  on  which 
no  oral  or  written  test  has  been  given.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  summary  of  the  scores  made  by  pupils  of  the 
five  grades  after  a  lapse  of  twenty  days: 


90  SILENT  READING 

GRADE  VIII  VII  VI  V  IV 

1.3%  0.7%  2.7%  3.8%  5.1% 

Just  why  the  pupils  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
grades  were  able  to  recall  more  than  those  of  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  a  matter  of  conjecture. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  material  had  a  com- 
pelling interest  for  pupils  of  the  lower  grades  which 
it  did  not  have  for  those  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades. 

One  thing,  at  least,  is  certain:  The  ability  of  the 
pupils  in  these  grades  to  recall  and  to  remember  any 
considerable  portion  of  the  material  read  is  deplor- 
ably small.  This  inability  to  study  a  lesson  with  an 
attitude  and  method  that  insures  remembering  the 
main  points  may  account  to  some  extent  for  the  poor 
showing  made  by  pupils  on  almost  any  unexpected 
quiz  or  test  to  which  they  are  subjected.  Since  it  is 
possible  to  develop  skill  in  retention,  teachers  are 
urged  to  emphasize  this  fourth  factor  not  only  in 
the  silent-reading  periods,  but  in  all  classroom  work. 

Testing  before  reading.  Professor  Yoakam  also  at- 
tempted to  determine  the  effect  on  immediate  recall 
if  pupils  are  tested  on  a  lesson  before  they  read  it. 
In  this  same  experiment  a  third  group  of  children  was 
priven  a  written  quiz  on  the  lesson  before  reading  it. 
Then  the  assignment  was  read  through  once  carefully, 
and  again  they  were  subjected  to  the  same  questions. 
The  scores  made  by  this  group  on  the  second  test 
were  much  higher  than  the  scores  made  by  the  othei 


RETENTION  gj 

two  groups  of  pupils  who  had  read  the  same  article 
and  taken  the  same  test.  Hence,  one  is  justified  in 
believing  that  some  important  factor  operated  to  cause 
the  difference.  Yoakam's  conclusion  is  that  the  pupils 
of  the  third  group,  who  took  the  test  before  reading, 
were  motivated  in  their  reading;  that  is,  they  read 
purposefully  and  with  the  idea  of  finding  the  answers 
to  the  questions  submitted  to  them  in  the  initial  test. 
That  such  an  inference  is  entirely  justifiable  is  ap- 
parent when  we  observe  that  the  grades  in  this  group 
excelled  each  of  the  grades  in  the  other  two  groups 
by  the  following  scores: 

GRADE  VIII  VII  VI  V  IV 

14.6%          13.6%  9.5%  5.8%  4.7% 

The  above  scores  represent  the  amounts  by  which 
the  pupils  in  the  third  group  excelled  the  pupils  in 
the  other  two  groups  when  all  were  asked  to  take  a 
test  after  a  single  reading.  For  example,  the  eighth- 
grade  pupils  in  the  third  group  were  tested  before 
reading  the  article  and  also  immediately  afterwards. 
After  subtracting  whatever  knowledge  they  showed  on 
the  first  test,  it  was  found  that  the  third  group  ex- 
celled by  14.6  per  cent.  This  difference  in  the  amount 
recalled  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  third 
group  concentrated  on  the  questions  missed  in  the  first 
test.  The  following  outstanding  suggestions  derived 
from  Yoakam's  experiment  may  be  applied  to  school- 
room procedure  with  the  best  results.  Teachers 
should  make  use  of  them. 


92  SILENT  READING 

1.  Give  pupils  a  test  before  they  read  the  lesson. 
That   makes   them  read   purposefully   and  with 
concentration  and  discrimination. 

2.  An  initial  test  tends  to  increase  their  retention, 
as  shown  by  both  Yoakam's  and  Peterson's  ex- 
periment. 

3.  After  pupils  read  the  lesson  over  once  carefully, 
give  them  the  initial  test  a  second  time.     Pupils 
can  then  see  how  much  they  gain  from  a  single 

reading.     This  is  pupil-motivation.    They  will  be 

interested   in  seeing  themselves  grow  from  week 

to  week.     Many  teachers  who  are  now  using  the 

initial  test  as  a  means  of  stimulating  purposeful 

reading  believe  it  increases  the  amount  recalled. 

The  combined  effects  of  giving  tests  before  reading 

and   immediately  after  reading,   and  the  value  of  a 

single    reading   upon   the   amount  recalled   in    twenty 

days,  were  tentatively  worked  out  by  Professor  Yoakam. 

His  comments  are: 

The  use  of  the  above  figures  in  this  way  is  at  the 
most  rather  speculative,  but  the  general  significance  of 
the  results  was  that  the  effect  of  a  single  reading  as 
a  means  of  insuring  delayed  recall  of  the  type  of  mate- 
rial here  represented,  is  apparently  almost  negligible. 
The  motivations  caused  by  the  initial  test  and  the  effect 
of  the  repetition  of  the  tests  apparently  far  outweigh 
in  importance  the  single  brief  contact  with  the  material 
as  a  means  of  insuring  retention  of  the  ideas.  Or,  to 
put  it  more  clearly,  if  the  motivation  caused  by  the 
testing  and  practice  due  to  the  repetition  of  the  test 
had  not  taken  place,  the  result  of  the  single  reading. 


RETENTION  93 

as  shown  by  the  scores  of  the  third  group,  would  prob- 
ably have  been  very,  very  small. 

We  may  draw  four  conclusions  from  Yoakam's 
study:  (1)  The  amount  of  material  retained  after 
one  reading  without  testing  or  motivation  is  almost 
nothing.  (2)  Submitting  the  test  questions  before 
reading  motivates  the  reader  by  helping  him  focus 
his  attention  on  the  main  points;  it  is  also  a  power- 
ful aid  to  permanent  retention.  (3)  Giving  a  test 
immediately  after  reading  the  material  is  another 
equally  potent  factor  in  aiding  retention.  (4)  Fre- 
quent tests  are  absolutely  necessary  if  retention  of 
even  the  most  important  facts  of  school  work  is  to 
be  secured.  The  small  amount  of  material  retained 
by  pupils  in  the  grades  may  thus  be  explained,  if  the 
figures  and  conclusions  of  Yoakam's  study  are  ac- 
cepted. In  conclusion  we  may  say  that  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthly  testing  on  all  assignments  is  the  surest 
guarantee  that  a  high  degree  of  comprehension  and 
retention  will  be  secured. 

Germane 's  experiment.  Further  to  substantiate  the 
data  given  in  Yoakam's  table,  another  experiment  was 
conducted  by  four  other  teachers  in  another  city  school 
system.  Four  hundred  pupils  in  the  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  grades  took  part  in  this  experiment.  Two 
different  types  of  reading  material  were  used,  a  nine- 
page  article  on  "Peanuts"  and  another  on  "Immi- 
gration." The  pupils  were  asked  to  read  each  article 
through  carefully  as  often  as  they  could  in  thirty 


94  SILENT  READING 

minutes.  They  were  then  subjected  to  a  fifteen-minute 
test  on  the  material  they  had  read.  Fifty-eight  days 
later  a  recall  test,  based  on  the  set  of  questions  used 
in  the  immediate-recall  test,  was  given.  A  summary 
of  the  results  is  presented  in  the  table  below. 

TEST  BARED  ox  THE  ARTICLE  "PEANUTS" 
(Possible  score  58  points.) 

DILATED 

AVERAGE  IMMEDIATE  RECALL  AFTER 

GRADE  TIMES  READ  RECALL  58  DATS 

VI  3  30.1%  ;>X' 

VII  3.5  34.6%  12.7% 

VIII  4  45.1%  21.3% 

The  table  is  read  thus:  Pupils  in  the  sixth  grade 
read  the  article  on  " Peanuts"  an  average  of  three 
times,  answered  30.1  per  cent  of  the  questions  on 
immediate  testing  and  9.8  per  cent  of  the  questions 
fifty-eight  days  later. 

TEST  BASED  ox  THE  ARTICLE  "IMMIGRATION" 
(Possible  score  65  points.) 

DELATED 

AVERAGE  IMMEDIATE  RBOAU  trm 

riRADi  TIMES  READ  RECALL  58  DATS 

VI  3  18.5%  4.1»'; 

VII  3.5  23.1%  7.8% 

VIII  4  41.2%  16.7% 

The  table  is  read  thus:  Pupils  in  the  fourth  grade 
read  the  article  on  "Immigration"  an  average  of  three 
times,  answered  18.5  per  cent  of  the  questions  on 
immediate  testing,  and  4.9  per  cent  of  the  questions 
fifty-eight  days  later. 

The    reader's    attention    is    called    to    the    following 


RETENTION 


95 


facts  relative  to  the  above  study:  (1)  The  two  arti- 
cles read  were  well  adapted  to  the  grades  in  which 
they  were  used.  (2)  The  pupils  read  for  thirty  min- 
utes with  greater  zest  than  they  probably  would  have 
had  under  normal  conditions,  because  they  knew  a 
test  would  be  given.  (3)  The  fifteen-minute  written 
test  was  a  severe  one  which  held "  all  to  their  tasks. 
Forty-five  minutes  was  spent  on  each  article.  In 
view  of  these  facts  the  scores  show  that  the  amount 
retained  after  a  lapse  of  fifty-eight  days  varied  from 
4.9  per  cent  to  16.7  per  cent  of  the  total  possible 
score. 

Bird's  experiment.1  One  hundred  normal-school 
students  in  educational  psychology  were  asked  to  read 
a  chapter  entitled  ".The  Nervous  System  as  the  Organ 
of  Behavior."  Although  the  assignment  contained 
many  facts  of  psychology  and  physiology  with  which 
these  students  had  little  if  any  acquaintance,  no  ex- 
planation or  directions  were  given  concerning  the 
material  set  for  study.  The  students  were  told  merely 
to  study  the  assigned  lesson  in  preparation  for  a 
written  test. 

The  following  semester  the  same  lesson  was  assigned 
to  another  group  of  a  hundred  students  having  the 
same  general  ability  and  preparation.  This  time  the 
assignment  was  preceded  by  careful  explanations  of 
all  different  parts  of  the  chapter;  the  explanations 
were  supplemented  by  demonstrations  with  the  model 

iBird,  Grace  E.  "An  experiment  in  'localization.'  "  School  and 
Society,  Vol.  8,  (November)  1918. 


90  SILENT  READING 

of  a  brain  and  a  preserved  human  brain.  The  super- 
vised study  period  of  half  an  hour  was  designed  to 
arouse  interest  in  the  topic.  At  the  next  recitation 
period  the  students  were  given  a  test  similar  to  that 
previously  used  for  the  first  group.  It  consisted  of 
twenty  questions  each  of  which  could  be  answered  in 
a  few  words.  The  correctness  of  the  answer  depended 
on  the  student's  knowledge  of  facts,  rather  than  upon 
his  ability  to  apply  and  use  those  facts.  Two  ques- 
tions were:  "The  point  of  contact  between  neurones 

is  called  a  ."  The  name  of  neurones  which 

convey  stimulation  to  the  muscles  is ." 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  the  general 
results  of  the  second  test  were  of  a  higher  grade  than 
those  of  the  first  one.  The  measured  differences  show 
that  the  half  hour  of  preparation  focalized  and  moti- 
vated the  work  to  the  extent  of  raising  the  average 
grade  from  54.15  per  cent  to  74.1  per  cent,  and  the 
median  grade  from  51.1  per  cent  to  73.95  per  cent. 
The  range  of  the  extremes  resulting  from  the  un- 
focalized  assignment  was  5  to  90,  of  the  other  from 
49  to  100.  The  absurdity  of  the  assignment  made  to 
the  first  hundred  students  is  obvious.  Nevertheless, 
that  type  of  assignment  is  still  used  in  many  class- 
rooms. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  indicate  the  import- 
ance of  a  careful  specific  assignment  as  an  aid  to 
retention,  the  possibility  of  catching  the  attention  and 
arousing  genuine  interest  in  a  lesson  by  carefully  ex- 


RETENTION  97 

plaining  its  difficult  parts,  the  probability  of  increasing 
the  achievements  of  the  students  in  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  work  accomplished,  and  the  advantage  of 
minimizing  the  initiation  of  incorrect  habits  and  ob- 
viating the  waste  of  unlearning  them. 

How  to  increase  retention.  The  following  methods 
and  devices  may  be  used  to  develop  skill  in  immediate 
recall,  as  well  as  permanency  of  retention.  (1)  Let 
the  pupils  know  that  they  are  to  be  tested  on  the 
material  read.  Do  not  fail  to  test  them.  (2)  Give 
a  test  over  the  assignment  before  reading.  As  has  been 
shown,  that  greatly  increases  the  amount  immediately 
recalled  and  permanently  retained.  (3)  Give  a  second 
test  after  the  pupils  have  taken  the  preliminary  test  and 
read  the  lesson  through  once.  That  appeals  to  most 
pupils  since  it  gives  them  an  opportunity  to  see  the 
gain  made  in  a  single  reading.  (4)  Have  short,  brisk, 
daily  reviews  of  the  outstanding  features  of  the  pre- 
vious day's  discussion  or  lesson.  (5)  Provide  weekly 
and  monthly  reviews  of  the  work  covered.  (6)  Have 
pupils  prepare  a  list  of  questions,  the  answers  to  which 
cover  the  main  points  in  the  work  of  the  week  or  the 
month.  (7)  Let  the  test  consist  chiefly  of  these  ques- 
tions. Have  the  papers  graded  in  class  by  pupils  and 
teacher,  who  are  also  to  decide  what  constitutes  a 
complete  answer.  (8)  See  that  the  papers  are  at  once 
returned  to  the  pupils,  thus  giving  each  a  chance  to 
review  his  own  and  to  protest  if  he  thinks  it  has  been 
improperly  valued. 


98  SILENT  READING 

Tests  conducted  according  to  the  suggestions  offered 
insure  four  reviews  of  the  main  points:  (a)  When 
the  pupils  prepare  the  test;  (b)  when  they  write  it; 
(c)  when  each  corrects  another's  paper;  (d)  when 
each  looks  over  his  own  paper  for  possible  errors  in 
valuing.  Outlining  and  summarizing  also  help  one  to 
retain.  To  remember  well  one  must  establish  logical 
associations.  Hence,  organization  .of  the  main  points 
in  a  lesson  under  the  proper  headings  and  subheadings 
is  a  powerful  aid  to  logical  association.  Organization 
also  appeals  to  one's  innate  love  of  rhythm.  Thorn- 
dike  urges  the  importance  of  interest,  attention,  and 
play  as  dynamic  factors  affecting  ready  recall.  It  is 
surely  the  common  experience  of  every  teacher  that 
to  the  degree  to  which  the  pupils  attend,  are  inter- 
ested, and  enjoy  certain  situations  in  their  school  work, 
to  that  degree  do  those  situations  remain  fixed  and 
tend  to  recur.  It  is  a  basic  law  of  human  psychology 
that  one  responds  to  situations  of  interest  and  pleasure 
more  frequently  than  to  their  opposites.  Thorndike's 
laws  of  readiness,  exercise,  and  effect,  together  with 
the  more  specific  laws  of  recency,  frequency,  intensity, 
and  duration,  should  be  understood  and  the  principles 
applied,  if  permanency  of  recall  is  to  function.  The 
importance  of  focalizing  the  pupil's  attention  upon 
the  main  points  in  the  next  assignment  should  not  be 
overlooked.  That  practice  is  of  particular  value  in 
classes  of  immature  pupils  who  cannot  readily  dis- 
tinguish among  major  and  minor  topics. 


RETENTION 


99 


SUMMARY 

1.  Retention  is  an  important  factor  of  effective  study. 

2.  Experiments  have  proven   the  inability  of  the  average 
pupil  to  recall  immediately  any  considerable  portion  of 
what  he  reads. 

3.  Experiments  show  that  of  450  pupils  who  read  an  article 
two  or  more  times,   not  one  could  answer  50  per  cent 
of  the  questions  submitted  immediately  after  the  read- 
ing. 

4.  The  amount  which  pupils  are  able  to  retain  after  inter- 
vals of  twenty  and  fifty-eight  days  is  almost  negligible. 

5.  Teachers  are  urged  to  use  methods  and  devices  which 
help  to  insure  retention. 

6.  The    teacher   of    silent    reading   and    of   other   subjects 
should  make  adequate  provision  for  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthly   reviews   of  the   minimal   essentials. 

SUGGESTED   READINGS 
Colvin,  Stephen  S.    An  Introduction  to  High-School  Teaching. 

The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  1921. 
Dearborn,   G.   V.   N.     How  to  Learn  Easily.     Little,  Brown 

and   Company,   Boston,   1916. 
Gray,   William    S.      Studies    of  Elementary   School   Reading 

Through  Standardized   Tests.      Supplementary  Educational 

Monographs,   Vol.   1,   No.   1,   1917.      University  of  Chicago 

Press,  Chicago. 
Heck,    W.    H.       Mental   Discipline    and   Educational    Value. 

The  John  Lane  Company,  Boston,  1911. 
Lukens,   H.    T.      Thought   and  Memory.      D.   C.   Heath   and 

Company,  Boston,  1896. 
Seashore,   Carl  E.     Psychology  in  Daily  Life.     D.  Appleton 

and  Company,   New  York  City,  1913. 
Thorndike,    Edward    L.       Educational    Psychology:    Briefer 

Course.      (Chapters  6,  10,  11,  16,  17,  19.)      Columbia  Uni- 
versity Press,  New  York  City,  1914. 
Thorndike,  Edward  L.     Elements  of  Psychology.      (Chapters 

13  to  18.)     2nd  ed.,  A.  G.  Seller,  New  York  City,  1913. 


CHAPTER  VI 

QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
READING 

A  consideration  of  reading  methods.  The  four  pre- 
ceding chapters  were  devoted  to  an  intensive  discus- 
sion of  the  larger  problems  of  silent  reading,  viz., 
speed,  comprehension,  organization,  and  retention.  In 
each  chapter  an  attempt  was  made  to  set  forth  the  im- 
portance of  the  problem  under  discussion,  in  its  nla- 
tion  to  teaching  pupils  how  to  study.  The  results  of 
several  investigations  of  methods  of  study  reveal  the 
deplorable  status  of  reading  common  to  our  schools. 
In  view  of  these  facts,  this  chapter  deals  with  two 
problems:  (1)  Some  reading  methods  and  their  out- 
standing defects.  (2)  Some  suggested  remedies.  Since 
the  most  effective  time  to  discuss  a  remedy  is  in  con- 
junction with  the  defect  itself,  these  two  themes  will 
be  treated  throughout  the  chapter  in  conjunction  with 
each  other. 

The  ABC  method.  One  of  the  most  glaring  defects 
in  teaching  reading  is  the  use  of  the  old  ABC  method 
still  in  vogue  in  many  of  the  backward  sections  of 
our  country.  Human  ingenuity  could  scarcely  have 
devised  a  scheme  more  unnatural  and  bewildering  to 

100 


'•*>*  »    *  "*    »     * 

QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  &F  TEACHING  ' 


the  child.  Beading  is  at  best  an  artificial  process  which 
involves  the  use  of  symbols.  The  child  comes  to  school 
thinking  in  terms  of  thought  units;  therefore,  the 
psychological  and  natural  approach  is  by  means  of 
the  sentence  method,  or  possibly  through  a  modification 
of  the  word  method. 

The  first  five  or  six  years  of  the  child's  life  have 
been  crowded  full  of  experience  of  all  kinds.  Thou- 
sands of  questions  and  the  memory  of  thousands  of 
experiences  are  in  his  mind  waiting  to  be  expressed. 
And  yet,  since  the  days  of  the  Greeks,  we  have  im- 
posed upon  the  immature  minds  of  children  twenty- 
six  letters  usually  presented  in  three  forms.  The  con- 
fusion arising  in  the  mind  of  an  eighth-grade  pupil  if 
a  complex  formula  in  trigonometry  were  presented, 
could  scarcely  equal  the  mental  disturbance  caused 
children  by  beginning  reading  with  the  ABC  method. 

Defects  of  the  A  B  C  method.  But  aside  from  this 
evil,  the  most  outstanding  objection  to  the  A  B  C 
method  is  that  it  retards  the  development  of  speed 
and  comprehension  in  reading.  The  movements  of  the 
eye  in  reading  a  line  are  interrupted  by  a  succession 
of  distinct  pauses  or  fixations.  Speed  in  reading  con- 
sists in  forming  motor  habits  with  few  pauses  or 
fixation-points  to  the  line,  and  with  a  minimum  time 
at  each  fixation  period. 

Pupils  whose  first  years  in  school  are  spent  in  fix- 
ing their  attention  daily  upon  a  letter  or  syllable,  form 
habits  of  narrow  eye-span,  that  is,  small  perception- 


102  SILENT  READING 

units.  It  is  believed  by  many  that  the  concentration 
of  attention  in  noting  the  peculiarities  of  certain  let- 
ters, or  the  phonetic  group  to  which  syllables  belong, 
forms  a  motor  habit  of  taking  in  narrow  perception- 
units  and  making  fixations  of  long  duration  at  each 
pause.  In  all  probability  the  child  never  can  become 
a  fast  reader  because  he  has  formed  these  motor  habits. 

The  reading  exercises  of  the  primary  grades  should 
be  such  as  to  enlarge  the  pupil's  perceptual  span.  Con- 
sequently, phrase-flashing  exercises,  which  necessitate 
the  pupil's  recognizing  a  group  of  words  in  a  very 
short  time-exposure  should  be  frequent  in  order  to. 
offset  the  danger  of  the  pupil's  seeing  and  reading  only 
one  word  at  a  glance  instead  of  taking  in  an  "eyeful." 

A  photographic  registration  of  all  slow  readers'  eye- 
movements  would  probably  show  eight  or  nine  fixa- 
tions to  the  line,  instead  of  only  the  necessary  three 
or  four,  as  well  as  many  regressive  movements  or  re- 
fixations.  Moreover,  the  duration  of  attention  at  each 
fixation  would  be  from  one-half  to  three  times  as 
long  as  that  of  a  rapid  reader. 

Increasing  the  comprehension  of  pupils  is  hindered 
by  the  use  of  the  ABC  method,  because  in  compre- 
hension the  attention  imist  be  focused  on  the  thought, 
not  on  the  letter  or  sound.  Slow  readers  do  not 
develop  a  wide  attention-span.  Their  peripheral  im- 
pressions are  so  limited  that  no  general  impression  of 
the  line  can  come  from  a  single  fixation. 

The  phonetic  method.    The  phonetic  method  is  open 


QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

to  the  same  criticism  as  the  A  B  C  method,  although 
its  evil  effects  may  not  be  as  bad.  When  reading  is 
taught  by  this  method,  the  attention  of  the  pupil  is 
focused  not  upon  the  thought  or  sentence  unit,  but 
upon  the  letters  and  syllables  of  a  word.  Hence,  the 
pupil  forms  motor  habits  in  reading  which  result  -in 
very  short  eye-span  and  fixations  of  long  duration. 
The  chief  value  of-  the  phonetic  method  is  that  the 
pupil  is  no  longer  dependent  on  the  teacher  for  learn- 
ing new  words.  It  should  be  used  in  the  word-drill 
study  period,  never  in  the  silent-reading  period.  All 
the  special  phonetic  methods  greatly  overemphasize  the 
value  of  that  training,  give  it  too  large  a  place  in  the 
early  work  in  reading,  and  pursue  it  long  after  its 
essential  values  have  been  obtained. 

The  ward  method.  The  word  method,  if  abused,  is 
also  detrimental  to  speed  and  comprehension.  In  fact, 
many  of  the  evils  that  are  inherent  in  the  ABC 
and  the  phonetic  methods  are  present  in  the  word 
method,  although  to  a  less  degree. 

Many  teachers  begin  with  the  word  method  and 
never  get  away  from  it.  They  begin  to  teach  read- 
ing from  a  chart  on  which  a  half  dozen  words  appear. 
Then  the  pupils  are  asked  to  read  short  sentences, 
either  individually  or  in  concert,  while  the  teacher 
slowly  times  or  isolates  each  word  with  a  pointer  or 
ruler. 

If  the  primer  is  used,  each  child  is  asked  to  read 
a  line  or  so,  and  to  point  to  each  word.  The  highest 


104  SILENT  READING 

ambition  of  some  teachers  seems  to  be  to  have  the 
pupil  "keep  his  finger  on  the  place/*  whether  he  is 
reading  or  following  the  reading  of  some  one  else.  A 
none  too  gentle  rap  on  a  delinquent's  finger  tends 
to  enforce  the  rule  until  he  forms  the  habit  of  pointing 
to  each  word  as  it  is  read.  Thus  the  child's  attention 
is  focused  on  words  instead  of  phrases  or  whole  sen- 
tences. While  reading,  pupils  should  not  be  allowed 
to  point  to  single  words.  When  the  teacher  points  to 
work  on  the  blackboard  she  should  indicate  phrases 
or  sentences  with  a  sweep  of  the  pointer. 

Criticisms  of  the  word  method.  Is  it  any  wonder 
that  pupils  taught  by  such  methods  form  motor  habits 
of  narrow  perception-units  and  exceedingly  long  time 
distribution  at  each  pause!  Roller  charts  are  now  to 
be  had  on  which  appear  phrases  and  short  sentences 
for  beginners.  These  are  flashed  before  the  pupil 
one  line  at  a  time  for  one  or  more  seconds.  He  thus 
forms  a  habit  of  seeing  and  comprehending  a  whole 
thought  unit  at  one  or  two  fixations.  Some  teachers 
make  use  of  the  blackboard,  flash  cards,  and  games  for 
the  first  half  year  until  habits  conducive  to  speed  and 
comprehension  are  formed.  For  example,  the  teacher 
writes  the  entire  reading  lesson  on  the  blackboard  be- 
fore the  recitation  period.  It  is  then  covered.  When 
the  time  comes  to  read,  only  one  sentence  is  exposed 
at  a  time.  The  exposure  is  brief  lest  the  pupils  form 
slow  motor  habits  of  reading  syllables  and  words  in- 
stead of  phrases  and  sentences  at  a  glance. 


QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Until  recently  educators  have  accepted  the  theory 
that  the  word-unit  method  is  the  natural  and  most 
economical  way  of  teaching  reading  to  beginners.  They 
declared  that  because  the  child  comes  to  school  with 
a  word  vocabulary  he  consequently  thinks  in  words, 
and  they  insisted  that  his  field  of  perception  is  very 
limited.  Regarding  the  latter  claim,  Dearborn  states 
that  the  amount  read  per  fixation  is  seldom  equal  to' 
the  field  of  perception.  For  digits  or  nonsense  syllables 
the  attention-span  may  be  rather  limited,  because  such 
material  offers  scant  opportunity  for  the  alws  of  asso- 
ciation to  function.  However,  when  the  letters  form 
words,  sixteen  or  twenty  can  be  caught  in  one  sweep, 
and  in  reading  ordinary  prose  four  to  six  words  are 
often  so  included.  Note  the  width  of  the  perception- 
unit  of  a  high-school  student  as  reported  by  Schmidt 
in  the  following  sentence: 

The   stranger   who   \\jould    form   a   coijrect   opinioiJ 
of     the      English      character     must     not     confihe 


his          observations          to          the          metropolis. 

The  vertical  lines  indicate  the  fixation-points,  show- 
ing that  the  perception-unit  may  be  wider  than  three 
or  four  letters,  as  many  advocates  of  the  word  method 
would  have  us  believe.  If  we  accept  the  above  state- 
ments of  scientific  investigators  as  being  trustworthy, 


106  SILENT  READING 

it  is  evident  that  the  word  method  does  not  tax  the 
field  of  perception  to  the  limit.  This  defect,  together 
with  the  extended  time  distribution  on  each  word, 
makes  the  method  very  questionable.  Successful  teach- 
ers of  reading,  who  claim  to  use  the  word  method,  suc- 
ceed with  it  because  they  use  flash  cards,  blackboard 
work,  and  other  devices  in  which  phrases  and  short 
sentences  really  become  the  perception-units. 

Oral  reading.  Overemphasis  of  oral  reading  was 
another  factor  which  contributed  to  the  deplorable 
status  of  reading  set  forth  in  the  preceding  chapters. 
The  public  has  a  right  to  ask  its  teachers,  "Why 
should  90  per  cent  of  the  classroom  reading  be  oral, 
if  99  per  cent  of  the  reading  in  adult  life  is  silent? 
Why  build  up  a  set  of  motor  habits  in  childhood  that 
handicap  one  in  adult  life?" 

Oral  reading  has  been  emphasized  in  the  lower  grades 
because  it  is  said  to  be  the  most  natural,  being  an 
expression  of  irrepressible,  psychic  tendencies.  Those 
who  advocate  oral  reading  in  those  grades  do  so  be- 
cause certain  psychological  factors  are  involved.  Unless 
one  is  of  the  extreme  visual-image  type,  the  problem 
of  inner  speech  in  reading  is  ever  present.  There  is 
usually  an  inseparable  association  between  a  word  and 
its  sound  so  that  when  the  visual  image  of  a  word 
is  recognized  the  auditory  image  of  the  word  arises. 
That  results  in  the  verbal-motor  expression  of  the 
word.  In  reading,  the  auditory  and  motor  centers  are 
active;  purely  visual  reading  is  not  normal.  Lip- 


QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING    1Q7 

reading  in  children  is  a  perfectly  natural  tendency, 
especially  if  their  minds  are  of  the  motor  or  auditory 
type. 

The  fact  that  oral  reading  is  natural  to  the  child 
does  not  at  all  justify  encouraging  the  practice.  Many 
babies  naturally  want  to  suck  their  thumbs,  but  no 
mother  is  justified  in  encouraging  that.  The  truth 
is  that  oral  reading  greatly  hinders  both  speed  and 
comprehension  because  it  depends  on  the  physiological 
mechanism  of  vocalization. 

Dr.  Schmidt's  table1  shows  that  the  average  number 
of  pauses  per  line  made  by  the  forty-five  subjects  of 
his  experiment  when  reading  silently  was  6.5,  and  the 
average  number  of  pauses  made  when  they  read  orally 
was  8.2.  The  average  duration  of  pauses  in  silent 
reading  was  .3882  seconds;  the  average  duration  in 
oral  reading  was  .3808.  Oral  reading  required  28  per 
cent  more  pauses  to  the  line,  and  24  per  cent  more 
time  at  each  pause,  than  did  silent  reading.  This  dif- 
ference is  explained  by  the  fact  that  oral  reading  is 
controlled  by  speech  units  rather  than  divided  into 
units  of  visual  perception. 

Method  of  training  primary  pupils.  Since  oral 
reading  retards  speed  at  least  25  per  cent,  according 
to  Schmidt's  data,  and  since  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
modify  those  motor  habits  after  they  are  formed,  one 
is  justified  in  making  the  greatest  possible  use  of 

Schmidt,  W.  A.  "An  experimental  study  in  the  psychology 
of  reading:."  Supplementary  Educational  Monograph,  Vol.  1.  No. 
2,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  1917.  (Consult  Tables 
VII  and  VTTT.  p.  43.) 


108  SILENT  READING 

silent  reading  even  in  the  first  grade.  One  experi- 
menter has  pointed  out  that  if  the  training  in  oral 
reading  were  discontinued  at  a  very  early  stage,  and 
training  in  rapid  silent  reading  stressed,  the  tendency 
toward  inner  speech  might  be  greatly  reduced  and 
visualization  cultivated. 

The  fact  is  that  children  do  have  the  ability  to 
take  in  all  kinds  of  situations  visually  without  speech 
accompaniment,  and  that  it  is  unnecessary  for  them  to 
articulate,  even  in  audibly,  when  they  read  symbols. 
This  may  be  demonstrated  in  any  primary-grade  read- 
ing class  by  having  the  pupils  do  the  thing  the  symbol 
suggests.  For  example,  the  teacher  writes  on  the  black- 
board, "Who  will  bring  me  the  bean  bag!"  "Let  the 
boys  play  the  girls  today,"  etc.  The  responses  to  these 
written  symbols  are  acted  out  by  the  children.  The 
whole  came  is  played,  the  score  recorded,  and  the 
material  put  away  by  the  children  without  a  word 
being  spoken  by  either  teacher  or  pupils. 

Judd  reports1  in  one  of  his  monographs  that  the 
tendency  to  inner  speech  which  oral  reading  encourages 
may  l>e  almost  overcome  by  great  effort  even  in  adult 
life.  He  cites  the  case  of  a  man  who  was  a  lip-reader 
and  also  an  excellent  oral  reader.  His  average  rate 
of  silent  reading  was  very  slow,  only  2.3  words  per 
second.  Realizing  his  handicap,  he  practiced  daily  for 
four  weeks  on  easy  and  familiar  material.  A  conscious 


Mudd,    Charles    H.      "Reading:    Its    nature    and    development." 
Monograph.    VoL 
Press.    Chicago. 


Supplementary    Educational    Monograph.    Vol.    2.    No.    4,    pp.    159. 
160.      University    of    Chicago    " 


QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING    1Q9 

effort  to  suppress  articulation,  to  increase  eye-span,  and 
to  see  phrases  instead  of  words  was  a  part  of  the  daily 
exercise.  His  reward  was  an  ability  to  read  4.7  words 
and  in  some  cases  6.2  words  per  second.  Further 
training  has  made  him  a  rapid  silent  reader. 

Lip-reading.  We  naturally  ask,  Why  should  we 
any  longer  stress  oral  reading  and  thus  retard  our 
speed  and  comprehension  for  life  ?  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  lip-reading  is  natural,  being  evidence  of  inner 
speech.  Many  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  encouraged 
by  emphasizing  oral  reading  in  the  early  grades.  Re- 
gardless of  what  may  be  the  causes,  the  evils  of  lip- 
reading  are  so  outstanding  that  some  mention  of  them 
should  be  made  at  this  time. 

Quantz1  found  that  among  the  subjects  of  his  ex- 
periment the  ten  pronounced  lip-readers  were  those  who 
read  4.1  words  per  second.  Ten  who  showed  least  move- 
ment of  the  lips  read  5.6  words  per  second.  In  terms 
of  percentage,  the  non-lipreaders  read  36  per  cent  more 
rapidly  than  the  lip-readers  did.  In  percentage  of 
thought  reproduced,  the  lip-readers  made  a  score  of 
14.9,  the  non-lipreaders  24.4.  In  quality,  the  lip-read- 
ers made  a  score  of  48,  the  non-lipreaders,  73.3. 

Germane 's  experiment.  Further  to  substantiate  the 
findings  of  Quantz,  attention  is  called  to  a  more  recent 
study2  of  lip-reading  made  by  Edith  G.  Germane.  This 

Quantz,  J.  O.      "Problems  in  the  psychology  of  reading/'     Psy- 
chological  Review:   Monograph   Supplement,   Vol.    2.    No.    1.    ( 
cember)     1897. 

3Germane  Edith  G.  "Relationship  between  speed  and  compre- 
hension in  silent  reading."  (An  unpublished  master's  disserta- 
tion offered  to  the  State  University  of  Iowa  in  1920.) 


HO  SILENT  READING 

experiment  was  performed  on  450  pupils  of  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades.  The  articles  used  were 
those  on  "Peanuts"  and  on  "Tuberculosis,"  already 
mentioned.  The  pupils  were  asked  to  read  the  article 
through  once  as  they  ordinarily  do  a  story.  The  time 
was  marked  on  the  blackboard  at  five-second  intervals; 
as  soon  as  a  pupil  finished  reading  he  looked  up,  then 
noted  and  recorded  his  time.  Then  he  took  up  the 
list  of  questions  and  immediately  answered  as  many 
as  possible.  While  the  pupils  were  reading,  three 
teachers  recorded  the  names  of  those  who  read  with 
decided  lip-movement.  The  rate  of  speed  and  the  per- 
centage of  comprehension  of  both  types  of  pupils  were 
tabulated  separately  and  compared.  The  lip-readers 
who  read  the  article  "Peanuts"  were  handicapped  in 
both  speed  and  comprehension.  Sixth-grade  lip-readers 
read  an  average  of  161  words  per  minute.  Pupils  of 
that  grade  who  were  not  lip-readers  read  an  average 
of  169  words.  In  the  comprehension  test,  the  average 
score  for  lip-readers  was  nine  points,  eleven  points  for 
those  who  were  not  lip- readers.  Seventh-grade  lip- 
readers  averaged  only  156  words  per  minute  and  made 
a  comprehension  score  of  fifteen  points.  Those  who 
were  not  lip-readers  read  180  words  per  minute  and 
made  a  comprehension  score  of  fifteen  points.  Eighth- 
grade  lip-readers  read  an  average  of  174  words  per 
minute  and  made  an  average  comprehension  score  of 
sixteen  points.  Members  of  that  grade  who  were  not 
lip-readers  averaged  reading  205  words  per  minute 


QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING    m 

and  made  an  average  comprehension  score  of  eighteen 
points.  The  results  obtained  by  having  the  pupils  read 
the  article  "  Tuberculosis "  showed  similar  relationships. 
Pupils  of  the  three  grades  who  read  that  article  were 
handicapped  in  both  speed  and  comprehension. 

The  figures  here  presented  probably  do  not  ade- 
quately indicate  the  seriousness  of  the  handicap.  Let 
us  look  at  them  from  another  point  of  view.  In  the 
eighth  grade  the  average  rate  for  non-lipreaders  who 
read  the  article  "Peanuts"  was  205  per  minute,  and 
for  lip-readers  it  was  174  words  per  minute,  an  aver- 
age difference  of  31  words  per  minute  or  1,860  words 
per  hour.  The  pamphlet  read  had  about  340  words 
to  a  page.  Hence,  the  non-lipreaders  in  the  eighth 
grade  read  an  average  of  five  pages  more  per  hour 
than  did  the  lip-readers.  If  the  comprehension  of  the 
lip-readers  had  been  superior,  this  handicap  in  rate 
would  not  be  so  serious,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
non-lipreaders  made  an  average  score  of  eighteen  points 
in  comprehension  as  compared  with  the  sixteen  points 
made  by  the  lip-readers.  They  excelled  the  lip-readers 
by  practically  13  per  cent. 

Suggested  treatment  for  lip-reading.  The  data  pre- 
sented in  these  two  studies  convince  one  of  the  evils 
inherent  in  lip-reading.  It  is  difficult  to  suggest 
a  remedy,  especially  for  a  child  of  pronounced  motor 
type.  It  would  seem  advisable,  however,  to  minimize 
oral  reading  and  stress  silent  reading  with  pupils 
who  have  formed  this  habit.  The  tendency  toward 


112  SILENT  READING 

motor  response  could  be  taken  care  of  in  primary 
grades  by  having  the  pupil  do  what  the  word,  phrase, 
or  sentence  says.  Many  teachers  get  excellent  re- 
sults by  drawing  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  adult 
lip-readers,  pointing  out  how  foolish  it  looks,  and 
explaining  just  how  it  handicaps  the  reader.  Then 
by  some  artificial  means,  such  as  an  honor  roll,  the 
teacher  encourages  the  pupils  to  inhibit  this  tendency. 
Placing  the  finger  on  the  lips  often  aids  in  inhibiting 
lip-movement. 

It  seems  that  lip-reading  may  be  partially  checked 
by  presenting  all  drill  exercises  very  rapidly.  For 
instance,  in  a  phrase-flashing  exercise,  make  the  ex- 
posure of  such  a  group  of  words  as  "under  the 
table"  so  short  that  the  pupils  have  not  time  to 
whisper  it  word  by  word.  It  is  well  to  separate 
pupils  into  at  least  two  groups  (three  is  better)  ac- 
cording to  their  rate  of  reading.  Lip-readers  should 
also  receive  special  drill  designed  to  break  the  habit. 
Much  patience  on  the  part  of  teacher  and  pupils  is 
necessary  if  this  habit  is  to  be  overcome.  With 
training,  the  phrase  rather  than  the  word  will  even- 
tually become  the  unit. 

Need  of  speed  and  comprehension  drills.  Perhaps 
the  greatest  cause  of  poor  reading  is  the  teacher 's 
failure  to  make  provision  for  daily  training  in  speed 
and  comprehension.  No  pride  in  rapid  and  thoughtful 
reading  is  developed,  and  no  provision  is  made  in  the 
daily  schedule  which"  insures  practice  in  speed  and 


QUESTIONABLE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

comprehension.  We  seem  to  be  concerned  with  the 
child's  getting  knowledge  rather  than  with  develop- 
ing his  ability  to  acquire  knowledge.  Part  II  of  this 
book  will  attempt  to  show  how  speed  and  comprehen- 
sion drills  may  be  made  a  part  of  the  daily  lesson. 

Teaching  pupils  to  organize.  Emphasis  should  also 
be  placed  on  organization.  It  is  surprising  how  soon 
pupils  can  be  taught  to  tell  when  a  new  paragraph 
begins  and  ends.  Their  oral  and  written  outlines 
would  often  put  much  older  pupils  to  shame. 

Teaching  pupils  to  retain.  The  value  of  daily  re- 
views and  drills,  and  of  a  schedule  for  general  re- 
views, can  not  be  overemphasized.  The  vital  point  is 
not  how  much  a  child  learns,  but  the  method  he  em- 
ploys to  learn. 

Choice  of  subject-matter.  If  pupils  are  to  become 
efficient  readers,  they  must  have  access  to  an  abun- 
dance of  material.  The  contents  of  the  readers  most 
widely  used  are  good.  Story-books,  too,  are  of  value, 
but  for  purposes  of  training  in  getting  and  organizing 
information,  the  training  must  be  applied  in  reading 
such  subjects  as  history,  geography,  and  science. 

SUMMARY 

1.  The  use  of  the  old  A  B  C  method  in  teaching  beginning 
reading  does  not  facilitate  the  formation  of  good  reading 
habits. 

2.  Overemphasis  of  the  phonetic  or  word  methods  is  un- 
favorable to  the  development  of  speed  and  comprehen- 
sion. 

3.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  reading  period  has  been  de- 


H4  SILENT  READING 

voted   to   oral   reading;    training   in   the  best   methods 
of  silent  reading  has  been  neglected. 

4.  Experiments  seem  to  prove  that  lip-reading  is  a  handi- 
cap that  affects  both  speed  and  comprehension. 

5.  Drill    exercises    that    emphasize    speed,    comprehension, 
organization,  and  retention  are  necessary. 

6.  Various  kinds  of  subject-matter  should  be  used. 

7.  All  defects  should  be  met  with  proper  remedial  meas- 
ures. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Anderson,    C.    F.    and    Merton,    El  da.       "Remedial    work    in 

silent    reading."       Elementary    School    Journal,    Vol.    21, 

(January)   1921. 
Dearborn,  W.  P.      "The  psychology  of  reading."      Columbia 

University    Contributions    to   Philosophy    and   Psychology, 

Vol.  14,  No.  1,  1906. 
Gray,  William  S.     "The  diagnostic  study  of  an  individual 

case   in    reading."      Elementary   School  Journal,   Vol.    21, 

(April)    192L 
Judd,   Charles   H.      Reading:  Its  Nature  and  Development. 

Supplementary    Educational    Monographs,    Vol.    2,    No.    4, 

(July)    1918.     University  of  Chicago  Press,   Chicago. 
Parker,  S.  C.     "How  to  teach  beginning  reading:   Part  IV." 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,   (December)    1921. 
Report  of  the  Society's  Committee  on  Silent  Reading:    Part 

II.     The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for 

the   Study   of  Education,    Public    School    Publishing   Com- 
pany, Bloom ington,  Illinois,  1921. 
Schmidt,  W.  A.     An  Experimental  Study  in  the  Psychology 

of  Reading.     Supplementary  Educational  Monographs,  Vol. 

1,    No.    2,    (April)    1917.       University    of    Chicago    Press, 

Chicago. 
Waldman,   Bessie.      "Definite   improvement  of  reading   in   a 

fourth-grade  class."     Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.   21, 

(December)   1920. 


CHAPTER  VII 

REMEDIAL  WORK  IN  READING 

The  importance  of  remedial  work.  There  are  doubt- 
less thousands  of  boys  and  girls  who  fail  each  year 
and  are  unable  to  continue  with  their  classmates  be- 
cause of  defects  which  can  readily  be  remedied.  For 
such  children  the  results  are  discouragement,  retarda- 
tion, and  elimination  from  school  in  far  too  many 
cases.  The  condition  has  occasioned  much  scientific 
research  in  remedial  work  in  reading.  Data  gathered 
from  these  investigations  suggest  methods  for  diag- 
nosing reading  defects,  and  devices  for  remedying 
them. 

Gray  cites1  a  case  that  furnishes  a  good  example 
of  the  value  of  diagnosis  and  remedial  work.  A  boy 
slightly  above  the  general  intelligence  of  his  age- 
group  had  been  in  school  four  years  and  was  still 
unable  to  read.  Careful  investigation  revealed  that 
he  had  never  formed  the  habit  of  moving  his  eyes 
regularly  from  left  to  right  along  a  line.  At  times 
the  first  pause  would  be  near  the  end  of  the  line,  at 

1Gray,  William  S.  "The  value  of  informal  tests  of  reading: 
accomplishments."  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  1,  (Feb- 
ruary) 1920. 

115 


SILENT  READING 

other  times  near  the  middle  of  it.  The  pauses  were 
irregular  and  followed  no  definite  order. 

In  order  to  help  'this  pupil  the  teacher  prepared 
drill  exercises  consisting  of  typewritten  words  placed 
half  an  inch  apart.  She  then  required  the  boy  to 
read  a  series  of  such  words  for  five  minutes  each  day 
in  order  to  cultivate  habits  of  regular  eye-movement. 
It  was  soon  possible  to  group  words  in  thought  units 
spaced  one-half  inch  apart  for  his  reading  exercises. 
Following  those  exercises  he  read  simple  reading  ma- 
terial. The  ease  and  accuracy  with  which  he  soon 
became  able  to  read  indicated  that  one  of  the  major 
difficulties  which  hindered  the  boy's  reading  had 
been  discovered  and  corrected. 

One  of  the  outstanding  weaknesses  common  to 
many  methods  of  teaching  reading  is  the  use  of  the 
same  drill  or  exercise  for  a  whole  class,  in  the  hope 
that  it  will  cure  all  reading  ills.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
there  may  be  as  many  reading  difficulties  as  there  are 
members  of  the  class."  For  that  reason  teachers  are 
urged  to  make  diagnoses  of  the  pupils'  defects. 
When  such  remedial  work  is  attempted,  two  diffi- 
cult problems  arise:  What  are  the  particular  causes 
of  the  pupil's  oral  and  silent-reading  defects?  What 
types  of  drill  will  most  thoroughly  and  economically 
remedy  the  defects?  This  chapter  and  the  following 
are  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  methods  for  use  in 
discovering  reading  difficulties,  and  to  suggestions  for 
eliminating  them. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 


117 


MEANS    AND    METHODS    OF    DIAGNOSING    READING 
DIFFICULTIES 

Standardized  tests.     To  discover  and  diagnose  oral 
and    silent-reading    defects    is    the    first   task    of   the 
teacher  who  attempts  to  increase  either  the  speed  or 
comprehension    of    her    pupils    by    scientific    means. 
What  are  some  of  the  means  and  methods  that  may 
be   used   to   discover   reading   defects?     Teachers   in 
many  schools   are  using  standardized   tests  for   this 
purpose.     If  the  study  habits  of  the  pupils  are  care- 
fully observed  and  noted  while  they  are  taking  the 
tests,  and  if  the  test  papers  are  carefully  analyzed, 
the  teacher  can  usually  discover  many  reading  defects. 
Superintendent  C.  J.  Anderson  and  Elda  Merton1 
of  the  public  schools  of  Stoughton,  Wisconsin,  used 
Gray's  Oral-reading  Test  to  determine  the  errors  most 
commonly    made    by    third-grade    children    in    oral- 
reading  classes.     The  classification  of  errors  made  and 
the  percentage  of  each  kind  are  shown  by  the  following 
table. 

Classification    of    errors    made    by    third-grade    pupils    while 

reading  Gray's  Oral-reading  Test 

KIND  OF  ERROR  PERCENTAGE 

Repetition 

Insertion  (letter  or  word)  14 

Omission  (letter  or  word) 
Substitution 
Mispronunciation 
Accent 

Anderson,  C.  J.f  and  Merton,  Elda.  "Remedial  work  In  read- 
ing: Parts  I  and  II."  Elementary  School  JowrnoJ,  Vol.  20,  (May. 
June)  1920. 


118  SILENT  READING 


Portion  omitted  7 

Portion  inserted  10 

Omission  not  changing  meaning  4 

Addition  not  changing  meaning  2 

Vowel  sounds  2 

Confusing  letters  not  governed  by  rule  1 

Wrong  syllable  3 

Repetition  to  correct  an  error  3 

Not  attempted  1 

The  typical  errors  made  in  silent  reading  were 
discovered  by  means  of  two  silent-reading  tests, 
Monroe's  and  Thorndike's.  The  percentages  of  errors 
of  each  kind  are  shown  below. 

KIND  OP  ERROR  FRBQUBNCT  PERCENTAGE 

Meager  meaning  vocabulary                             741  33 

Inability  to  find  the  essential  idea                 423  10 

Omission  of  part  of  idea  due  to  short 

unit  of  visual  recognition  306  14 

Giving  general  thought  instead  of  spe- 
cific answer,  or  particular  instances 
instead  of  general  thought;  i.  e.,  in- 
ability to  get  definite  information 

from  material  read  293  13 

Inaccuracy  due  to  carelessness  or  haste          90  4 

Failure  to  differentiate  between  words 

somewhat  similar  in  spelling  76  3 

Failure  to  note  carefully  small  words 

and  key  words  95  4 

Substitution  of  pupil's  own  thought  for 

that  In  paragraph  97  4 

Inability  to  think  logically  in  response 

to  question  91  4 

In  addition  to  the  errors  listed  above,  the  follow- 
ing were  recorded  by  teachers  who  observed  the 


REMEDIAL  WORK  jjg 

pupils'  silent  reading.  (1)  Reading  word  by  word 
instead  of  by  thought  groups.  (2)  Vocalization  and 
lip-movement.  (3)  Using  the  finger  to  follow  the 
line.  (4)  Short  span  of  attention  which  results  in 
loss  of  place,  and  the  omission  and  repetition  of 
words.  (5)  Slow  rate  of  silent  reading.  Although 
these  five  headings  include  the  types  of  errors  that 
most  frequently  occur,  there  is  much  overlapping 
in  the  classification.  For  example,  a  slow  rate  of 
reading  may  be  caused  by  vocalization  and  lip-move- 
ment, by  using  the  finger  to  follow  the  lines,  or 
by  a  meager  number  of  words  understood. 

Teacher-made  tests.  As  shown  by  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  experiment  cited,  standardized  read- 
ing tests  may  be  used  to  determine  oral  and  silent- 
reading  errors.  But  what  is  the  teacher  to  do  who  is 
not  familiar  with  administering  standardized  tests 
and  interpreting  the  results  obtained?  What  can 
she  do  to  determine  reading  errors  and  defects  when 
she  has  none  of  the  standardized  measurements  avail- 
able? A  reasonable  answer  to  the  latter  question  is 
to  suggest  that  each  teacher  make  her  own  reading 
tests. 

When  measuring  the  rate  and  quality  of  oral 
reading  by  means  of  a  teacher-made  test,  the  follow- 
ing suggestions  should  be  kept  in  mind:  Select  read- 
ing material  adapted  to  the  child's  grade.  The 
pupil's  reader  or  any  of  his  other  textbooks  may 
be  used.  Note  the  exact  second  at  which  he  reads 


120  SILENT  READING 

the  first  word  of  the  selection  and  mark  the  word.1 
When  sixty  seconds  have  elapsed,  mark  the  word 
which  he  was  reading  when  the  minute  was  up. 
However,  let  him  finish  the  paragraph.  Count  and 
record  only  the  words  read  in  one  minute.  The  pupils 
themselves  can  often  do  this  accurately.  In  order  to 
test  comprehension  ask  such  questions  about  the 
selection  as  you  usually  ask.  Chart  both  the  speed 
and  comprehension  record  and  file  for  future  use. 
Note  and  record  such  errors  as  repetitions,  substitu- 
tions, etc.  As  these  data  give  a  basis  for  remedial 
work,  it  is  well  to  have  the  pupil  read  two  or  three 
minutes  in  order  to  get  a  definite  idea  of  his  needs. 
Follow  the  same  procedure  with  each  member  of 
the  class.  If  comparisons  are  to  be  made  between 
the  achievements  of  the  pupils  on  this  first  test  and 
on  other  tests  given  two  weeks  or  a  month  later, 
the  same  type  of  reading  material  should  be  used  and 
conditions  should  be  as  nearly  the  same  as  possible 
when  the  second  test  is  given. 

Devising  class  standards.  If  the  teacher  desires  to 
benefit  by  the  wholesome  influence  that  usually 
comes  from  standardization,  she  may  do  so  by  devising 
standards  for  the  class  from  the  pupils'  own  records. 
To  do  this,  find  the  average  rate  of  the  three  most 
rapid  readers  in  a  class  of  twelve  pupils,  and  the 
average  comprehension  score  of  the  three  who  rank 

'Some  teachers  think  they  can  pet  a  more  accurate  measure 
of  the  pupil's  actual  reading  rate  if  they  allow  him  to  read 
three  or  four  lines  before  they  beerin  to  mark  time. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

highest  in  thought-getting.  Let  these  two  scores  be 
the  standards  or  goals.  Generally  speaking,  the  aver- 
age score  made  by  the  best  fourth  of  the  class  affords 
a  good  stimulus  for  study.  If  such  a  method  of 
standardization  is  adopted  throughout  the  grades, 
the  pupils  in  the  upper  fourth,  who  are  already  up 
to  or  above  the  standard  of  their  own  grade,  may 
take  as  their  goal  the  standard  set  for  the  grade 
immediately  above  them.  The  practice  of  determin- 
ing the  standard  for  the  class  from  the  pupils* 
achievements  often  awakens  a  genuine  interest  in 
reading.  The  personal  element  involved  often  causes 
the  teacher  to  raise  the  question,  "How  well  should 
a  pupil  read  in  this  grade '?" 

If  the  teacher  uses  the  above  method  of  standardiz- 
ing instead  of  those  standards  based  on  scientific 
measurements,  she  should  begin  a  study  of  the  read- 
ing defects  of  the  75  per  cent  who  are  below  the 
class  standard.  Of  the  fourteen  typical  errors  in 
oral  reading  revealed  by  Gray's  Oral-reading  Test, 
substitutions,  repetitions,  and  insertions  occur  most 
often.  The  teacher  can  discover  any  of  these  by 
having  the  pupils  read  three  or  four  paragraphs 
which  she  selects.  Much  of  this  diagnostic  work  can 
be  done  in  class.  A  certain  study  reports  that  the 
teacher  did  a  large  amount  of  remedial  work  in  one 
grade,  although  she  used  little  time  other  than  the 
usual  recitation  period.  This  is  an  advisable  plan  to 
follow,  especially  when  the  teacher  has  many  duties. 


122  SILENT  READING 

Planning1  remedial  work.  Some  teachers  do  not 
plan  their  remedial  work  advantageously.  Instead 
of  working  with  one  pupil  at  a  time,  while  the  other 
members  of  the  class  await  their  turns,  the  teacher 
should  classify  the  pupils  into  several  small  groups 
on  the  basis  of  their  reading  defects,  then  unite 
similar  groups  for  certain  lessons.  During  such  exer- 
cises good  readers  who  need  but  little  help  should 
spend  their  time  improving  the  quality  of  their  silent 
reading.  "A  definite  diagnosis  of  individual  traits  in 
reading  should  form  the  basis  of  grouping.  Every 
trait  which  influences  reading  habits  can  in  turn 
!>«•  influenced  by  definite  training  and  special  prac- 
tice."1 

Anderson  and  Morton's  data  record  nine  reading 
errors  discovered  when  pupils  were  diagnosed  by 
the  two  silent-reading  tests.  The  teachers  who  gave 
the  tests  also  noted  five  other  reading  defects.  The 
last  five  were  determined  by  carefully  observing  the 
pupils'  study  habits  when  they  took  the  tests.  Even 
had  standardized  tests  of  silent  reading  not  been 
available,  it  would  have  been  possible  for  any  of 
those  teachers  to  discover  many  of  the  fourteen  errors 
by  using  silent-reading  material  which  they  selected, 
as  was  done  when  the  oral-reading  errors  were  found. 

How  to  make  silent-reading  tests.  If  the  teacher 
devises  her  own  silent-reading  tests,  she  should  keep 
the  following  facts  in  mind.  Select  three  or  four 

*Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  pro- 
cedure." Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  18.  (March)  1918. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 


123 


pages  of  reading  material  adapted  to  the  grade. 
Use  material  found  in  the  pupil's  textbooks  and  sup- 
plementary readers.  See  that  all  pupils  begin  read- 
ing at  the  same  time.  Measure  the  rate  of  reading 
by  calling  time  at  the  end  of  one  or  two  minutes 
and  having  the  pupils  find  the  average  number  of 
words  read  per  minute.  The  teacher  can  expedite 
this  work  by  counting  the  words  in  each  line  and 
writing  at  the  end  of  the  line  the  total  number  of 
words  on  the  page  up  to  that  point.  When  the 
pupil  shows  the  teacher  the .  last  word  he  read,  she 
adds  the  last  preceding  number  indicating  a  total 
to  the  number  of  words  read  in  the  line  with  which 
the  pupil  finished,  and  thus  instantly  obtains  the 
total  number  of  words  read.  The  teacher  can 
measure  the  pupils'  ability  to  comprehend  and  to 
retain  by  having  them  answer  definite  questions 
based  on  what  they  read.  Factual  and  well-organized 
material  lends  itself  readily  to  this  treatment.  The 
questions  should  be  worded  so  as  to  demand  much 
thinking  and  little  writing.  File  or  chart  both  speed 
and  comprehension  scores  for  future  use.  Observe 
the  pupils'  study  habits  while  taking  the  test,  and 
'note  carefully  the  kind  of  errors  made.  When  subse- 
quent tests  are  given  for  purposes  of  comparison, 
select  material  as  nearly  as  possible  like  that  first 
used. 

The   teacher   can  arouse   much  interest  by  letting 
each  pupil  compute  his  own  reading  rate  and  figure 


124  SILENT  READING 

his  own  comprehension  score.  The  latter  should  be 
based  on  the  number  of  correct  answers.  The  records 
of  each  pupil  may  be  placed  on  the  blackboard  or 
filed  for  future  reference.  The  teacher  can  stand- 
ardize these  class  scores  by  taking  as  a  standard 
the  record  made  by  the  upper  fourth.  As  has  been 
said,  the  teacher-made  tests  and  class-made  standards 
often  excite  greater  interest  than  do  standardized 
tests  and  their  accompanying  standards.  The  in- 
trinsic value  of  informal  tests  as  a  means  of  diagnosis 
and  standardization  has  been  set  forth  by  Gray,1 
Waldo,2  and  Smith.8 

Reading  scales  and  tests.  The  teacher  should  use 
scales  to  discover  reading  difficulties  whenever  con- 
ditions allow.  These  scales  not  only  show  with  what 
speed  and  accuracy  pupils  should  read,  but  they  also 
furnish  a  chart  of  each  child's  weaknesses.  For 
example  when  the  Picture  Supplement  Scales  for 
Measuring  Ability  in  Silent  Reading4  was  used,  it  was 
found  that  some  pupils  in  the  third  grade  read  as 
many  paragraphs  and  attempted  as  many  answers  as 
are  expected  of  a  child  two  or  three  grades  more  ad- 
vanced. A  careful  check  on  the  accuracy  of  the 
answers  showed  that  often  only  a  few  were  correct. 

KJray,  W.  S.  "Value  of  Informal  tests  of  reading  accomplish- 
ments." Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  1,  (February)  1920. 

•Waldo,  Carl  D.  "Tests  in  reading  in  the  Sycamore  schools." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  15,  (January)  1915. 

•Smith,  Bertha  M.  "Efficiency  in  assimilating1  reading."  School 
Review,  Vol.  25.  (November)  .1917. 

*Burgess,  May  Ayres.  Picture  Supplement  Scales  for  Measuring 
Ability  in  Silent  Reading.  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  New  York 
City,  1920. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 


125 


Some  pupils  were  found  who  read  very  slowly  and 
attempted  only  a  few  answers,  most  of  which  were 
correct.  Some  were  discovered  who  could  read  neither 
rapidly  nor  accurately. 

In  a  recent  article,1  the   author  of  the  scale  men- 
tioned above  outlines  a  method  of  classifying  pupils 


TABLE  Va 

GROUP  ASSIGNMENTS  FOR  SILENT-READING  DRILL,  TURNER  SCHOOL,  GRADE  III, 
FEBRUARY,  1921 


AT- 
TEMPTS 

MUCH  DRILL  IN  CARE 

SOME 
DRLLL  IN 
CARE 

No  DRILL  IN  CARZ 

6  or  More 
Wrong 

S  Wrong 

4  Wrong 

3  Wrong 

•2  Wrong 

i  Wrong 

o  Wrong 

No 
drill 
in 
speed 

20 

10- 

18 

17 
16 
IS 
H 
13 

12 
II 
10 

9 

8 
7 

David 



Theodore 



Peter 

fohn 

flenry 

Barbara 

Marjory 

Francis 

/Elizabeth 
\Charles 

Janet 
Tim 

Lucille 

Some 
speed  drill 

6 
5 

Fred 

Helena 
Bancroft 

VVinthrop 

Much 
drill 
in 
speed 

4 
3 

2 

I 
O 

'Douglas 
\Ruth 

1Bur^ess,  May  Ayres.  "Classroom  grouping  for  silent-reading 
drill."  Elementary'  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (December)  1921 

2Taken  from  an  article  by  May  Ayres  Burgess  which  appeared 
in  the  Elementary  School  Journal,  December.  1921. 


126  SILENT  READING 

whose  reading  defects  have  been  determined.  Teacher 
and  pupils  thus  have  these  difficulties  to  guide  them 
in  selecting  the  kind  of  drill  needed.  The  table  on 
the  opposite  page  illustrates  the  method. 

This  table  shows  that  one  of  the  pupils  —  Theodore 
—  is  a  very  rapid  reader  but  a  rather  careless  one; 
he  attempted  thirteen  paragraphs  and  had  five 
wrong.  Two  pupils,  Janet  and  Tim,  read  eight  para- 
graphs and  did  each  exercise  correctly.  Douglas  and 
Ruth,  who  represent  the  third  type  of  pupils,  read 
only  two  paragraphs  and  failed  to  answer  either 
question  correctly. 

If  the  results  of  teacher-made  tests  and  the  needs 
of  pupils  as  revealed  by  them  are  charted  on  the 
blackboard  or  made  available  to  teacher  and  pupils 
by  means  of  a  diagram  like  that  in  Table  V,  it  will 
perhaps,  tend  to  create  a  genuine  interest  in  reading. 
Each  child  will  then  know  what  difficulty  he  has  to 
overcome.  Teachers  are  urged  to  use  standardized 
scales  and  to  supplement  them  with  others  which 
they  make  and  standardize. 

Pressey's  experiment.  Luella  C.  Pressey  reports1 
a  reading  test  which  she  devised  for  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  grades.  In  general  her  test  is  based  on 
the  assumption  that  two  factors  —  meager  vocabulary 
and  the  persistence  of  oral-reading  habits. —  affect  the 
progress  of  reading  in  the  early  grades.  One  part 

1Pressey,  L.  C.  "A  first  report  on  two  diagnostic  tests  in 
silent  reading  for  grades  ii  to  iv."  Elementary  School  Journal. 
Vol.  21.  (November)  1921. 


REMEDIAL  WORK  127 

of  her  test  attempts  to  determine  the  extent  of  the 
pupil's  vocabulary,  the  other  seeks  to  discover  the 
presence  of  detrimental  oral-reading  habits. 

Experimenters  who  used  this  test  found  children 
with  the  following  reading  defects:  (a)  An  extensive 
vocabulary,  but  a  very  slow  rate,  due  perhaps  to  the 
persistence  of  detrimental  oral-reading  habits.  (6) 
A  rapid  rate  but  a  limited  vocabulary  with  consequent 
low  standard  of  comprehension  ability.  (c)  Limited 
vocabulary  and  slow  rate,  (d)  A  persistence  of  bad 
reading  habits  formed  in  the  first  grade,  namely, 
pointing  to  words,  lip-reading,  and  reading  one  word 
at  a  time.  Although  this  test  is  designed  neither  to 
point  out  the  words  which  the  child  does  not  know, 
nor  to  reveal  the  habits  which  retard  speed,  it  en- 
ables the  teacher  to  get  at  the  root  of  the  difficulty 
in  each  case. 

Intelligence  tests.  The  child's  mental  endowment 
is  a  factor  which  greatly  affects  his  reading  achieve- 
ment. One  should  scarcely  expect  a  pupil  of  low 
mentality  to  make  as  much  progress  as  the  pupil  of 
superior  intelligence  makes.  Theisen  has  found  a 
marked  relationship  between  progress  in  reading  and 
the  ability  of  the  bright  pupil.  However,  the  teacher 
must  not  be  too  ready  to  ascribe  slow  progress  to 
lack  of  mental  ability.  An  investigation  which  has 
been  reported  shows  that  slow  progress  is  often  at- 
tributed to  lack  of  intelligence  when  the  cause  is 
really  something  else. 


128  SILENT  READING 

A  number  of  highly  recommended  intelligence  tests 
are  available.  Teachers  who  are  acquainted  with 
those  scientific  measurements  and  the  method  of 
using  them  should  employ  them  for  diagnostic  pur- 
poses. If  that  is  not  possible,  the  teacher  can  get 
some  idea  of  a  pupil's  general  intelligence  by  using 
some  of  the  following  suggestions,  provided  the 
child  is  otherwise  normal.  (1)  Have  him  read  a  few 
paragraphs  and  then  coherently  reproduce  the  lead- 
ing thoughts.  (2)  Have  him  read  a  few  paragraphs 
of  well-organized  factual  material,  then  outline  them 
briefly.  (3)  Have  him  read  and  interpret  a  short 
poem  or  story.  (4)  Select  thirty  words  wholly 
within  the  vocabulary  of  a  normal  child  of  his  age. 
Allow  him  sixty  seconds  to  name  —  not  write  —  the 
oppositcs  of  them.  (5)  Observe  his  achievements  in 
other  activities  besides  reading. 

SOME  READING  DEFECTS 
CAUSES  AND  SUGGESTED  REMEDIES 

Physical  defects.  Almost  every  survey  of  pupils' 
achievements  in  school  shows  that  thousands  of  chil- 
dren are  handicapped  in  their  reading  because  of 
physical  defects  which  may  easily  be  remedied. 

Recently  a  study1  was  made  in  an  attempt  to  show 
the  relationship  between  mental  power,  as  determined 
by  an  intelligence  test,  and  comparative  freedom  from 
physical  defects.  This  study,  based  on  an  examination 

^andwick,  R.  L.  "Correlation  of  physical  health  and  mental 
efficiency. "  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  VoL  1.  (March) 


REMEDIAL  WORK  129 

of  423  high-school  students,  produced  significant  re- 
sults. Practically  53  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  the 
group  having  high  intelligence  scores  had  no  physical 
defects;  every  pupil  in  the  group  having  low  intelli- 
gence scores  had  one  physical  defect  or  more.  "It 
was  noticeable  that  the  defects  among  the  ablest 
group  were  not  only  fewer  in  number,  but  also  less 
serious  in  character.  Some  of  them,  indeed,  were  only 
temporary.  Most  of  the  defects  among  both  groups 
are  entirely  remediable.  This  study  supports  the 
growing  conviction  that  good  abilities  may  be  and 
often  are  masked  by  the  presence  of  physical  defects, 
and  it  points  to  the  unmistakable  duty  of  the  school 
to  provide  for  every  child  early  and  frequent  physical 
inspection  with  a  systematic  follow-up  in  applying 
remedies."  But  since  physical  inspection  of  children 
comes  neither  early  nor  frequently  in  many  schools, 
the  responsibility  for  discovering  and  helping  to  rem- 
edy the  more  common  physical  defects  of  pupils  rests, 
upon  the  teacher.  The  pupil's  physical  condition  and 
his  progress  in  school  are  so  closely  related  that  a 
physical  diagnosis  should  be  made  at  once  whenever 
he  fails  to  do  average  work. 

Defective  eyesight  ranks  first  among  physical  dis- 
abilities which  affect  reading.  Some  of  the  more  com- 
mon symptoms  of  defective  vision  are,  holding  the 
book  at  a  distance  greater  or  less  than  normal,  com- 
plaining of  blurred  lines  or  letters  running  together, 
irregular  eye-movements  in  following  lines,  and  fre- 


130  SILENT  READING 

quent  headaches.  Such  conditions  demand  a  physi- 
cian *s  immediate  attention.  Instances  are  not  un- 
common in  which  eyeglasses  made  it  possible  for 
pupils  who  were  markedly  dull  and  retarded  to  do 
good  work  within  a  short  time. 

Malnutrition  due  to  living  conditions  may  also 
cause  some  nervous  disorders.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
detect  this  disability.  Often  a  little  patient  and  tact- 
ful inquiry  will  locate  the  cause  and  give  the  teacher 
an  opportunity  to  suggest  a  remedy.  Proper  diet, 
plenty  of  fresh  air,  exercise,  regular  hours  of  sleep, 
and  companionship  with  children  who  live  under  bet- 
ter conditions  generally  solve  the  problem. 

Defective  hearing  often  causes  a  pupil  to  be  ranked 
as  stupid.  In  time  he  may  become  retarded  because 
he  misses  much  that  his  teacher  and  classmates  say. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  detect  this  defect,  but  in  most 
cases  the  remedy  is  beyond  the  teacher's  means. 

Adenoids  and  defective  teeth  frequently  cause  dull- 
ness. In  the  latter  case,  the  teacher  can  do  much 
preventive  work.  Decayed  teeth  should  be  discovered 
and  remedied  as  soon  as  possible  by  either  treatment 
or  removal,  because  the  poison  produced  by  decompo- 
sition is  continually  absorbed  and  may  seriously  af- 
fect the  general  health. 

Meager  vocabulary.  Gray  cites1  the  case  of  a 
seventh-grade  boy  that  illustrates  the  handicap  due 

'Gray.   W.    S.      "Individual    difficulties    in    silent    reading  in    the 

fourth,    fifth,    and    sixth    grades."       Twentieth    Yearbook  of    the 

National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  II.  Public 
School  Publishing  Company,  Bloomington.  Illinois,  1921. 


REMEDIAL  WORK  13j 

to  a  meager  vocabulary.  This  boy  was  fourteen  years 
and  ten  months  old  when  the  remedial  work  began. 
His  teacher  reported  him  as  a  poor  student,  one  who 
lacked  the  ability  to  get  ideas  from  the  text.  "When 
asked  to  tell  what  he  had  read,  he  reproduced  a  few 
ideas  in  short,  scrappy  sentences. "  He  was  tested  in 
both  oral  and  silent  reading.  In  the  former  he  read 
rapidly,  pronouncing  the  words  mechanically  and 
enunciating  poorly.  He  paid  no  attention  to  punctua- 
tion. The  test  for  comprehension  in  silent  reading 
showed  that  he  ranked  below  the  poorest  pupils  in 
the  two  preceding  grades. 

It  was  evident  from  these  tests  that  he  had  learned 
to  pronounce  words  whose  meanings  he  did  not  know. 
The  remedy  at  once  suggested  itself,  namely,  the 
provision  of  situations  that  would  focus  his  attention 
upon  the  ideas  which  the  words  conveyed.  Since  he 
was  interested  in  camp  and  pioneer  life,  such  books 
as  The  Boy  Scout's  Manual,  Roosevelt's  Winning  of 
the  West,  Ouster's  Boots  and  Saddles  were  given  him 
to  read  silently.  He  was  asked  to  reproduce  either 
orally  or  in  writing  parts  of  the  selections  read. 
These  reproductions  were  so  meager  and  inadequate 
that  it  was  often  necessary  for  him  to  re-read  and 
work  over  his  assignment  four  or  five  times. 

It  soon  became  evident  that  word  study  would 
have  to  be  given.  The  teacher  stressed  word  analysis 
and  word  building  and  pointed  out  the  significance  of 
the  stem  of  a  word,  and  the  effects  of  prefixes  and 


132  SILENT  READING 

suffixes  on  its  meaning.  The  pupil  soon  came  to 
realize  the  significance  of  such  words  as  "recall," 
"reclaim/'  "rebound,"  "regain,"  etc.  Synonyms 
were  alse  studied.  In  so  far  as  possible  this  work 
was  confined  to  having  the  pupil  discover  as  many 
synonyms  as  he  could  for  some  word  in  his  favorite 
reading.  For  example,  the  expression  "indomitable 
hero"  occurred  in  the  pioneer  stories.  Some  of  the 
words  which  the  boy  gave  as  meaning  practically  the 
same  as  "indomitable"  were  "brave,"  "courageous," 
"resolute,"  "manly,"  "bold,"  "plucky,"  and  "de- 
fiant." 

The.  pupil's  progress  was  measured  by  comparing 
his  achievements  at  the  end  of  eighteen  weeks  with 
that  of  another  poor  reader  in  the  same  grade  who 
was  not  given  this  training,  but  who  spent  the  same 
amount  of  time  in  preparing  and  reciting  his  lesson 
in  the  usual  manner  and  under  ordinary  schoolroom 
conditions.  The  former  developed  a  higher  rate  in 
silent  reading  than  in  oral.  The  latter  made  no  im- 
provement in  rate.  In  comprehension  the  former 
made  far  greater  progress  than  did  the  latter. 

Reading1  to  enlarge  the  vocabulary.  The  methods 
used  to  strengthen  the  "meaning  vocabulary"  of  the 
boy  mentioned  are  effective  and  typical.  Doubtless 
the  vocabulary  of  pupils  in  any  grade  can  best  be 
enlarged  by  having  them  read  much  interesting  ma- 
terial suitable  to  their  ability.  The  types  of  material 
should  not  be  limited.  The  child  has  a  right  to  the 


REMEDIAL  WORK 


133 


spiritual  possessions  of  the  race  as  contained  in  the 
best  children's  literature,  in  history,  stories  of  travel 
and  of  plant  and  animal  life.  The  reading  list  given 
in  the  Appendix  contains  many  titles  bearing  on  the 
above  subjects.  In  every  classroom  there  should  be 
a  little  library  of  at  least  ten  good  books  for  each 
of  the  grades  that  recite  there.  These  books  should 
be  available  to  pupils  who  have  done  the  assigned 
work  for  the  day.  If  these  books  are  not  in  the 
school  library,  encourage  the  children  to  bring  their 
story-books  and  other  interesting  reading  material 
from  home.  By  means  of  a  system  of  exchange  each 
pupil  thus  has  a  chance  to  read  broadly.  Teachers 
are  often  surprised  at  the  wealth  of  material  which 
may  be  obtained  in  this  way.  If  approached  tactfully, 
boards  of  education  and  parents  can  be  led  to  see 
the  wholesome  educational  value  of  much  supplemen- 
tary reading.  A  school  social  or  entertainment  will 
often  yield  enough  funds  to  start  a  library. 

The  language  period  offers  another  opportunity  to 
enlarge  the  child's  vocabulary.  Class  projects,  in- 
dustrial and  social,  school  excursions,  school  gardens, 
children's  pets,  childhood  experiences,  and  stories 
found  in  supplementary  readers  may  be  advantage- 
ously utilized  to  develop  a  wide  and  meaningful 
vocabulary.  Word  drills  may  also  be  used.  They 
not  only  aid  the  child  to  recognize  words  quickly, 
but  they  enable  the  teacher  to  emphasize  different 
uses  of  the  same  word  in  so  far  as  the  pupil's  ex- 


134  SILENT  READING 

perience  allows.  Much  more  can  be  done  for  a  child's 
vocabulary  through  wide  reading,  however,  than  by 
any  form  of  drill. 

The  subnormal  child.  Poor  reading  is  too  often 
attributed  to  low  mentality.  Hawley  reports1  that 
out  of  109  sixth-grade  pupils,  twenty-one  were  classed 
as  poor  readers.  Only  ten  of  the  twenty-one  were 
rated  as  pupils  above  average  intelligence  by  mental 
tests,  and  only  six  were  rated  below.  Two  of  those 
below  the  average  made  substantial  progress  in  the 
interval  between  tests.  "If  their  rather  low  mentality 
were  taken  as  a  full  explanation  of  their  poor  scores 
in  the  first  test,  it  would  be  difficult  to  explain  how 
they  could  make  such  progress  after  the  tests."  An 
experiment  conducted  in  Dr.  Horn's  elementary  school 
at  the  State  University  of  Iowa  confirms  the  above 
findings.  Such  data  should  impress  all  teachers  who 
are  disposed  to  classify  every  poor  reader  as  dull. 

The  kind  of  remedial  measures  to  be  employed  in 
cases  of  low  mentality  depends  largely  on  the  amount 
of  the  teacher's  time  and  the  pupil's  degree  of  mental 
inferiority.  If  a  child  is  feeble-minded,  the  regular 
teacher  has  neither  the  time  nor  special  training  to 
do  him  justice.  Nor  can  she  afford  to  lower  the 
standard  of  the  grade  for  this  particular  child.  If 
segregation  and  instruction  by  a  special  teacher  are 
not  possible,  it  is  best  to  let  the  child  go  as  "un- 

'Hawley,  W.  E.  "Effect  of  clear  objectives  on  the  teaching 
of  reading."  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  3,  (April) 
1921. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

graded. "  If  he  is  in  the  second  grade  in  reading 
and  in  the  fourth  grade  in  handwork,  advance  him  in 
each  subject  as  rapidly  as  his  capacities  allow.  One 
must  let  him  fit  in  here  and  there  as  best  he  can. 

The  general  intelligence  of  the  majority  of  sub- 
normal pupils  is  considerably  greater  than  that  of 
those  classed  as  feeble-minded.  If  special  training 
could  be  given  such  pupils,  many  of  them  would  be- 
come able  to  do  much  regular  classwork.  The  diffi- 
culties common  to  the  average  pupil  are  very  promi- 
nent among  subnormal  children.  In  the  lower  grades, 
the  outstanding  defects  are  inability  to  recognize 
word  groups,  meager  vocabularj^,  and  irregular  eye- 
movements.  Subnormal  children  more  readily  develop 
habits  of  word  naming  and  pointing.  In  the  upper 
grades,  these  unfortunate  children  seem  to  lack  the 
ability  to  get  the  central  thought  in  a  paragraph,  to 
organize  the  essential  points  of  the  lesson  into  out- 
line or  summary  form,  and  to  do  assimilative  read- 
ing, that  is,  collateral  thinking  of  related  experiences. 
The  teacher  can  advantageously  apply  some  of  the 
remedial  work  suggested  on  the  following  pages  when 
teaching  the  subnormal  child. 

Word  recognition.  The  ability  of  pupils  to  recog- 
nize words  readily  can  be  quickly  and  accurately  de- 
termined by  oral-reading  or  flash-card  tests.  Hesita- 
tion, mispronunciation,  substitution,  omission,  and  in- 
sertion are  the  chief  evidences  of  failure  to  recognize 
words. 


136  SILENT  READING 

In  the  lower  grades,  flash-card  exercises  and  other 
forms  of  word  drills  may  be  used  to  develop  quick 
word  recognition.  So  far  as  possible  the  words  and 
phrases  used  in  these  drills  should  be  those  found  in 
the  pupil's  reading  material.  Poor  word  recognition 
in  the  second  and  third  grade  may  be  due  to  lack 
of  training  in  the  use  of  phonics.  Anderson  and 
Merton  report1  the  effect  of  ten  lessons  in  phonics 
upon  the  word-recognition  ability  of  a  certain  boy. 
Before  receiving  the  special  training  he  was  tested 
on  a  list  of  words  common  to  his  grade.  The  table 
below  shows  the  results  of  the  special  training. 

NUMBER  OP  WORDS     NUMBER  or         PERCENTAGE 
DATB  ATTVMPTCD  ERRORS  CORRECT 

February  18  55  17  61 

March  13  368  17  95 

The  table  should  be  interpreted  thus:  Before 
remedial  work  in  phonics  was  given,  the  pupil  at- 
tempted to  name  55  words  in  a  given  list,  and  failed 
on  17;  after  ten  drill  lessons,  368  words  were  at- 
tempted, and  only  17  were  wrong. 

One  of  the  most  effective  means  of  improving  word 
recognition  is  to  supplement  the  devices  suggested 
above  by  supplying  the  pupils  with  much  easy  and 
interesting  reading  material.  This  insures  a  review  of 
many  words  in  new  settings.  The  ease  and  rapidity 
with  which  the  child  reads  such  stories  are  affected 
by  his  command  of  phonics  and  his  ability  to  recog- 
nize words. 

TAnderson.  C.  J..  and  Merton.  Elda.  "Remedial  work  In  read- 
ins::  Part  I."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  20.  (May)  1920. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 


137 


Even  for  upper-grade  pupils,  the  flash-card  exer- 
cise is  one  of  the  most  desirable  types  of  drill  work 
on  Quick  word  and  phrase  recognition.  Such  drill 
has  proved  beneficial  even  to  college  freshmen. 
Special  drills  on  word  building  and  synonyms  sug- 
gested by  the  report  of  Gray's  study  mentioned 
earlier  in  this  chapter  are  beneficial.  Laura  Zirbes 
suggests1  ten  types  of  lessons  for  remedial  work  in 
reading.  A  part  of  the  fifth  lesson  appears  below. 
She  has  found  that  pupils  need  special  drill  on  words 
that  begin  or  end  alike.  The  following  words  are 
suitable  for  such  drill. 

when  who  every  even 

what  there  never  ever 

then  their  than  certain 

that  women  man  curtain 

how  woman 

Too  little  emphasis  on  phonics.  In  the  intermediate 
and  upper  grades,  many  children  are  retarded  in  read- 
ing by  too  little  emphasis  on  phonics  as  well  as  by 
too  much  emphasis  on  that  phase  of  instruction.  We 
shall  first  consider  a  case  where  the  pupil  was  handi- 
capped because  of  no  phonic  training. 

Anderson  and  Merton  cite2  the  case  of  a  girl  who 
was  struggling  along  in  the  fourth  grade,  although  she 
was  unable  to  read  primer  material.  They  determined 
that  lack  of  a  knowledge  of  phonics  prevented  her 

Zirbes,  Laura.  "Diagnostic  measurement  as  a  basis  for  pro- 
cedure.". Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  18.  (March)  1918. 

2Anderson,  C.  J..  and  Merton,  Elda.  "Remedial  work  In  read- 
ing:: Part  II."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  20.  (June)  1920. 


138  SILENT  READING 

from  reading  even  primer  material  independently. 
They  then  gave  the  child  eleven  lesson  in  phonics  and 
word  recognition,  teaching  six  phonic  rules  in  the  first 
six  lessons.  Eighty-seven  words  were  studied  and  learned 
according  to  those  rules.  The  last  five  lessons  were 
devoted  to  a  study  of  phonograms,  from  five  of  which 
157  words  were  developed.  When  the  eleventh  lesson 
was  finished,  244  words  involving  six  phonic  rules  and 
five  phonograms  had  been  built  up.  On  March  13 
a  word  test  was  given  containing  225  of  these  words. 
A  comparison  of  the  results  of  this  test  with  those 
obtained  from  the  one  given  February  18  is  shown 
below. 

NUMBER  OP  WORDS    NUMBER  OF        PERCENTAGE 
DATE  ATTEMPTED  ERRORS  CORRECT 

February  18  24  7  70 

March  13  225  13  94 

The  efficacy  of  phonic  drill  as  an  auxiliary  to  word 
recognition  becomes  significant  when  one  recalls  that 
only  eleven  lessons  were  given  to  this  pupil.  Gray's 
Oral  and  Silent -reading  Tests  were  then  administered 
again,  and  the  results  compared  with  the  scores  made 
before  taking  phonic  drill  and  word  drill.  The  errors 
for  the  first  three  paragraphs  totaled  nine  on  the 
last  test,  as  against  twenty-nine  on  the  first  test.  The 
pupil's  scores  in  quality  and  rate  were  higher  on  the 
last  test  than  on  the  first. 

It  was  thought  best  to  follow  up  these  phonic-drill 
lessons  with  other  lessons  which  emphasized  word 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

analysis,  oral  reading  for  quality  and  content,  and 
silent  reading  for  rate  and  quality.  The  Free  and 
Treadwell  Primer1  was  chosen  for  the  beginning  work 
in  oral  reading  because  of  its  rich  content  so  simply 
told.  Twenty-seven  lessons  of  this  type  were  given. 
Standardized  silent-reading  tests  were  again  adminis- 
tered at  the  conclusion  of  these  lessons.  The  following 
changes  were  noted:  The  rate  was  more  than  doubled 
for  both  selections  in  the  last  test.  Quality  score 
changed  from  0  in  the  first  test  to  35  and  17  respec- 
tively in  the  last  test.  Lip-movement,  which  was  very 
noticeable  in  the  first  test,  occurred  now  only  when 
the  pupil  encountered  difficult  words. 

Overemphasis  of  phonics.  Gray  reports2  the  case 
of  a  fourth-grade  girl  who  was  a  fluent  oral  reader 
but  who  comprehended  very  little  of  what  she  read. 
She  was  asked  to  read  a  passage  from  her  fourth  reader 
silently,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  thought  well 
enough  to  reproduce  it  later.  She  reproduced  more 
or  less  inaccurately  only  a  very  small  amount  of  what 
she  read.  Of  the  questions  asked,  she  answered  only 
one,  that  incorrectly.  After  a  careful  analysis  of  all 
available  data,  the  examiner  concluded  that  the  child's 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  mechanics  of  reading 
enabled  her  to  recognize  words  and  to  read  material  far 

lrThis  is  the  first  book  of  the  Free  and  Treadwell  Reading- 
Literature  Series  published  by  Row,  Peterson  and  Company,  Chi- 
cago. 

2Gray,  W.  S.  "Individual  difficulties  in  silent  reading  in  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades."  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  IT.  Public  School 
Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1921. 


140  SILENT  READING 

beyond  her  comprehension.  She  read  words  as  names 
and  not  as  symbols  of  ideas.  The  problem  was  plainly 
that  of  training  her  to  read  for  content. 

The  remedial  exercises  consisted  of  passages  taken 
from  second  and  third-grade  readers.  The  first  passage 
was  very  short  and  contained  few  ideas.  Each  suc- 
ceeding passage  was  somewhat  longer  and  made  in- 
creasing demands  on  the  reader.  When  exercises  were 
assigned,  the  pupil's  attention  was  directed  to  mean- 
in  •_•>  rather  than  to  pronunciations.  "  After  she  had 
given  a  reproduction  of  the  story  and  had  answered 
a  number  of  specific  questions  about  it,  she  was  asked 
to  re-read  the  selection  in  search  of  any  thoughts  she 
had  overlooked  during  the  first  reading.  She  then 
gave  a  second  reproduction.  This  last  reproduction  was, 
no  doubt,  largely  a  result  of  the  questioning.  Never- 
theless, it  was  valuable  in  training  the  pupil  to  see 
the  richness  of  content  in  the  selection." 

The  training  period  lasted  for  six  weeks.  One 
thirty-five  minute  lesson  was  given  each  week;  in  one 
week  two  lessons  were  given.  From  five  to  seven 
paragraphs  were  assigned  at  each  lesson  according  to 
the  plan  described.  When  the  silent-reading  records 
of  December  and  May  were  compared,  they  showed 
a  decided  increase  in  the  rate  and  quality  of  the 
pupil's  silent  reading.  In  December  she  was  unable 
to  reproduce  a  single  thought  or  to  answer  a  single 
question.  In  May  she  was  fairly  efficient  in  her  ability 
to  reproduce. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

SUMMARY 

1.  The  problem  of  remedial  measures  is  one  of  the  most 
important   phases  of   reading   instruction  and   probably 
the  least  understood. 

2.  Valuable    means    and    methods    of    diagnosing    reading 
difficulties  are:   Standardized  tests,  informal  or  teacher- 
made  tests,  diagnostic  reading  scales,  and  mental  tests. 

3.  The   results   of  an   experiment  show  that   78   per  cent 
of   the   oral-reading   defects    in    a   particular   group   of 
children    were    distributed    as   follows:    Repetitions,    15 
per   cent;    insertions,   24   per   cent;    omissions,    15    per 
cent;  substitutions,  24  per  cent. 

4.  After   using   silent-reading   tests   as   a   means   of   diag- 
nosing silent-reading  difficulties,  the  results  showed  that 
79  per   cent   of  the  errors   can  be  grouped   under  the 
following    headings:    Meager   vocabulary,   33    per   cent; 
inability  to  find  the  main  idea,  19  per  cent;   omission 
of  part  of  the   idea   due   to  short   span  of  perception, 
14  per  cent;    inability  to   concentrate  and  get  specific 
data,  13  per  cent. 

5.  The  factors  which  prove  detrimental  to  good  oral  and 
silent  reading  should  receive  the  teacher's  attention. 

6.  Among  the  causes  of  poor  reading  are  (1)   physical  de- 
fects such   as  eye  and  ear  trouble,  enlarged   adenoids, 
enlarged    and    diseased    tonsils,    malnutrition,    and    de- 
cayed teeth,   (2)    meager  vocabulary,    (3)    subnormal ity, 
(4)  lack  of  ability  to  recognize  words. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Brooks,  S.  S.  "Conditions  revealed  by  the  use  of  stand- 
ardized tests  in  rural  schools."  Journal  of  Educational 
Research,  Vol.  3,  (January)  1921. 

Burgess,  May  Ayres.  "Classroom  grouping  for  silent-reading 
drill."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (December) 
1921. 

Gray,  W.  S.  "The  value  of  informal  tests  of  reading  ac- 
complishment." Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  1, 
(February)  1920. 


142  SILENT  READING 

Gray,   W.   S.      "The  use  of  tests   in  improving   instruction." 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.   19,    (October)    1918. 
O'Hern,  J.   P.      "Development   of  a  chart  for  attainment   in 

reading."     Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  3,   (May) 

1921. 
Smith,    Bertha    M.       "Efficiency    in    assimilating    reading." 

School  Review,  Vol.  25,    (November)    1917. 
Uhl,   W.   L.      "The   interest  of  junior   high-school   pupils   in 

informational     reading    selections."        Elementary    School 

Journal,  Vol.  22,  (January)  1922. 
Uhl,  W.  L.     "The  use  of  the  results  of  reading  tests  as  a 

basis    for    planning    remedial    wcrk."      Elementary    School 

Journal,  Vol.   17,    (December)    1916. 
Wilson,    Estaline.       "Specific    teaching    of    silent    reading." 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,    (October)    1921. 
Wyman,    J.    B.    and    Wendle,    Miriam.       "What    is    reading 

ability?"       Journal    of   Educational    Psychology,    Vol.    12, 

(December)    1921. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
REMEDIAL  WORK  IN  READING  (Continued) 

PERSISTING  PRIMARY-GRADE  BEADING  HABITS 
Pointing  to  words.  Many  teachers  allow  primary 
pupils  to  point  to  words  when  reading,  and  to  point 
and  read  silently  while  a  classmate  reads  orally.  Some 
teachers  even  require  primary  pupils  to  do  that.  To 
devise  a  more  effective  method  for  training  pupils  to 
read  slowly  and  listlessly  would  tax  the  effort  of  a 
genius.  In  the  sample  lessons  of  Part  II  we  have 
explained  the  use  of  a  marker  which  renders  the  forma- 
tion of  the  pointing  habit  unlikely  if  used  in  beginning 
reading  work.  However,  if  the  pupils  form  the  habit  of 
pointing  when  they  read,  the  teacher  must  take  steps  to 
correct  it.  She  should  make  clear  that  reading  consists 
in  getting  ideas  from  print,  and  that  ideas  are  more 
often  conveyed  by  groups  of  words  than  by  single 
words.  This  fact  should  be  illustrated  by  examples. 
She  should  explain  that  because  the  eye  can  see  a 
group  of  words  more  quickly  than  the  finger  can  point 
to  a  single  word,  the  good  reader  is  one  who  reads 
phrases,  or  other  groups  of  words,  not  one  who  points 
to  single  words  as  he  reads.  Those  who  point  to  each 
word  as  they  read  it  can  only  read  in  a  slow  and 

143 


144  SILENT  READING 

drawling  manner;  good  and  pleasing  expression  is  for 
them  impossible.  The  bad  habit  of  pointing  when 
reading  can  be  overcome  by  having  the  pupils  read 
interesting  and  familiar  material  under  time  pressure. 

Word  focus.  Making  the  word  instead  of  the 
thought  unit  the  focus  of  attention  may  be  due  to 
overemphasis  of  phonics,  pointing  to  words,  meager 
vocabulary,  overemphasis  of  oral  reading,  or  an  un- 
usually narrow  perception-span.  Remedial  measures 
for  each  of  these  defects  are  suggested  in  this  and  the 
preceding  chapter. 

Oral  reading.  As  we  have  said,  overemphasis  of 
oral  reading  tends  to  develop  the  habit  of  reading 
slowly  because  the  mechanism  of  vocalization  makes  it 
impossible  for  a  child  to  read  orally  as  rapidly  as  he 
can  see  words.  Buswell's  investigation1  of  what  occurs 
when  one  reads  orally  has  some  practical  suggestions 
for  teachers.  He  observed  that  in  oral  reading  the 
eye  moves  along  the  line  of  print  in  advance  of  the 
voice,  at  times  keeping  very  far  ahead  and  at  other 
times  very  little  in  advance.  Immature  and  poor 
readers  keep  eye  and  voice  very  close  together;  their 
eye-voice  span  is  narrow.  An  eye-voice  span  of  con- 
siderable length  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  reader 
may  get  an  intelligent  grasp  of  the  material  ahead, 
and  so  read  with  good  expression.  Without  a  long 
eye-voice  span  reading  is  only  a  series  of  spoken  words. 

1Buswell.  G.  T.  "The  relationship  between  eye-perception  and 
voice-response  in  reading."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
VoL  12.  (April)  1921. 


REMEDIAL  WORK  145 

A  positive  correlation  exists  between  wide  eye-voice 
span  and  mature  reading  habits.  The  eye-voice  span 
of  good  readers  in  the  elementary  grades  averages  58 
per  cent  more  than  that  of  poor  readers;  among  high- 
school  students  the  good  readers  have  an  eye-voice 
span  36  per  cent  wider  than  that  of  the  poor  readers. 
A  good  reader's  eye-voice  span  is  relatively  wide  at 
the  beginning  of  a  line  and  relatively  narrow  at  the 
close.  Such  readers  inhibit  voice  action  until  the  eye 
has  gained  a  considerable  lead,  that  is,  until  they 
comprehend  the  first  few  words.  They  owe  their  good 
expression  to  looking  ahead  until  they  apprehend  com- 
plete ideas.  Poor  readers  begin  voicing  words  as  soon 
as  their  eyes  see  the  first  word  in  a  line.  They  should 
be  taught  to  pause  until  they  get  the  first  complete 
idea.  It  is  evident  that  if  these  principles  are  applied 
by  those  who  read  orally,  there  will  be  little  if  any 
poor  oral  reading. 

The  perception-unit.  A  recent  article,1  which  em- 
phasizes the  importance  of  developing  habits  of  wide 
perception-span,  declares  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  overestimate  the  value  of  developing  a  broad  eye- 
span  in  reading.  Both  Dearborn  and  Schmidt  have 
shown  that  the  perception-span  of  the  average  reader 
is  by  no  means  taxed  to  its  limit.  A  narrow  percep- 
tion-unit results  in  word  naming,  poor  comprehension, 
and  monotonous  oral  expression.  Such  a  condition 

'O'Brien,  John  A.  "Training  in  perception  as  a  means  of 
accelerating  the  silent-reading  rates."  Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  Vol.  11,  (October)  1920. 


SILENT  READING 

may  be  remedied  by  using  flash-card  exercises  for 
word  and  phrase  drill,  by  giving  pupils  definite 
assignments  and  exercises  which  cause  them  to  read 
for  thought,  by  training  them  from  the  beginning 
to  see  groups  of  words  and  to  think  in  terms  of 
phrases  and  sentences,  by  giving  them  much  easy  and 
interesting  material  to  read,  and  by  not  emphasizing 
phonics  until  the  pupils  have  formed  the  habit  of 
reading  for  thought.  An  early  presentation  of  phonics 
tends  to  focus  the  attention  on  parts  of  words  and  so 
causes  pupils  to  read  single  words  instead  of  word 
groups. 

Lack  of  a  knowledge  of  English.  It  is  not  unusual 
to  find  pupils  who  come  from  homes  where  English 
is  not  spoken  or  even  seen  in  print  except,  perhaps, 
in  advertisements.  Such  children  often  do  poor 
work  and  easily  become  discouraged  because  they 
fail  to  comprehend  much  of  the  subject-matter  on 
account  of  a  limited  English  vocabulary,  and  because 
the  realization  that  they  speak  "broken  English" 
makes  them  self-conscious  and  timid.  On  account  of 
their  shyness  they  are  often  classed  as  dull. 

The  first  lessons  used  in  teaching  the  non-English- 
speaking  child  must  be  directed  toward  giving  him 
an  understanding  of  the  spoken  language  and  an 
ability  to  speak  it.  Reading  should  be  introduced 
only  as  it  stimulates  him  and  aids  him  to  increase 
his  vocabulary.  Conversational  lessons  based  on 
topics  within  the  range  of  his  interests  and  experi- 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

ences,  telling  and  dramatizing  stories,  sand-table 
projects,  school  gardens,  and  games  are  excellent 
means  of  stimulating  expression.  The  child  should 
be  encouraged  to  participate  in  the  activities  of  the 
recreation  periods;  he  will  learn  much  by  observing 
and  listening. 

After  the  pupil  has  acquired  a  speaking  vocabulary 
which  enables  him  to  get  along  with  the  group,  con- 
versational lessons  on  topics  of  interest  should  form 
the  basis  of  his  reading  lessons.  The  teacher  should 
stress  this  work,  especially  when  the  child  is  over  age 
and  too  mature  for  the  simple  material  found  in 
the  primers.  Many  simple  stories  and  books  should 
be  made  available.  If  the  pupil  experiences  unusual 
difficulty,  he  should  be  given  special  phonic  drills. 

Inability  to  use  reference  books.  As  early  as  pos- 
sible, teachers  should  help  pupils  to  form  the  habit  of 
using  the  dictionary.  That  is  sometimes  done  even 
in  the  third  grade.  Very  often  the  teacher  begins 
the  work  in  the  fourth  grade  by  giving  a  series  of 
talks  on  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  The  plan  has 
proved  helpful  to  children  because  it  acquaints  them 
with  an  auxiliary  for  use  in  preparing  their  reading 
lessons.  From  the  dictionary  they  learn  the  prin- 
ciples of  syllabication,  accent,  correct  pronunciation, 
and  how  to  discriminate  among  the  various  meanings 
of  a  word. 

In  order  to  do  satisfactory  remedial  work  in  read- 
ing, it  is  often  necessary  for  pupils  to  have  a  working 


148  SILENT  READING 

knowledge  of  the  dictionary.  This  was  shown  in 
the  discussion  of  word  building,  word  analysis,  and 
the  study  of  synonyms,  as  possible  remedies  for  cer- 
tain reading  defects.  Other  uses  for  the  dictionary 
arise  daily  in  the  reading  or  language  work.  The 
pronunciation,  derivation,  and  uses  of  a  few  words 
should  often  be  made  a  part  of  the  next  day's  assign- 
ment. 

In  speaking  of  the  misuse  of  the  dictionary  Klapper 
says: 

Practice  in  the  use  of  the  dictionary  should  be  re- 
served exclusively  for  home  work  and  seat  work;  it 
should  never  be  given  during  an  oral  recitation.  It 
is  a  common  practice  for  teachers  to  stop  a  reading 
lesson  while  a  word  is  being  looked  up  in  the  dictionary 
by  a  member  of  the  class.  The  nervousness  which  re- 
sults from  a  consciousness  that  the  class  is  watching 
makes  the  child  who  is  thus  victimized  take  much  longer 
than  usual,  and  in  his  excitement  he  reads  off  the  wrong 
definition.  The  spirit  and  the  forward  movement  of 
the  whole  lesson  are  killed  for  the  petty  interest  in  a 
word.  Despite  the  pedagogical  dictum,  "Never  tell  what 
the  child  can  find  out  for  itself."  the  teacher  should 
give  the  meaning  of  the  word  and  make  no  more  ado.1 

The  ease  with  which  a  large  amount  of  accurate 
data  can  be  collected  by  using  the  alphabetical  in- 
dexes, tables  of  contents,  and  cross  references  of 
books,  should  be  demonstrated  to  all  upper-grade 
pupils.  Many  teachers  now  demand  that  pupils  be 
given  special  training  in  finding  and  collecting  in- 

'Klapper.  Paul.  Teaching  Children  to  Read.  D.  Appleton  & 
Company,  New  York  City,  1914. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

formation  in  an  economical  way.  Such  training 
should  by  all  means  be  given  and  in  the  most  prac- 
tical manner  possible. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  256  seventh-grade  pupils  who  were  given  a 
test  designed  to  find  out  whether  they  knew  how  to 
use  a  book:1 

58.9  per  cent  did  not  make  use  of  the  table  of  contents. 

49.5  per  cent  failed  to  use  the  index. 

29.6  per  cent  failed    to   discover  a   list   of  maps. 
21.4  per  cent  could  not  locate   the  appendix. 

27.3  per  cent  had  no  idea  of  the  purpose  of  a  footnote. 
23.0  per  cent  could  not  find  the  paragraph  headings. 

65.7  per  cent  were  unahle  to  discover  that  the  author  had 
provided    lists    of   references    for   the    reader's   help 
and  guidance. 

A  knowledge  of  the  economical  use  of  books  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  pupils  when  assignments  are 
made  by  topics,  projects,  or  problems,  because  such 
assignments  usually  require  much  reading  in  works 
of  reference.  The  ease  and  accuracy  with  which  data 
bearing  on  a  particular  problem  may  be  found  in 
such  work  appeals  to  the  pupils.  The  teacher  can 
motivate  training  in  collecting  information  by  asking 
for  special  written  reports  on  various  phases  of 
some  class  problem.  In  a  junior  high-school  class  at 
the  State  University  of  Iowa,  the  teacher  assigned 
each  pupil  one  phase  of  a  certain  problem.  She  then 
asked  each  to  prepare  a  carefully  written  theme  and 
furnish  it  with  a  bibliography.  Later,  each  pupil 

1Finch,  Charles  E.  "Junior  high-school  study  tests."  School 
Review,  Vol.  28,  (March)  1920. 


150  SILENT  READING 

read  his  paper  to  the  group,  the  members  of  which 
then  discussed  it  and  reached  certain  conclusions. 
Such  work  develops  good  study  habits. 

Carelessness  and  carefulness.  Teachers  have  ob- 
served that  many  pupils  read  very  rapidly  but  care- 
lessly. Burgess1  reports  that  some  pupils  rapidly 
read  the  first  half  of  a  paragraph,  then  jump  to  the 
next  one.  Some  read  paragraph  after  paragraph  at 
a  rate  much  beyond  the  standard  of  the  grade,  but 
neglect  to  follow  a  single  direction  or  suggestion 
stated.  Many  pupils  read  so  rapidly  and  inaccurately 
that  they  fail  to  note  meaningful  key  words  such  as 
"had,"  "in,"  "on,"  "out,"  "not,"  "run,"  etc. 
Sometimes  the  meaning  of  a  whole  sentence  is  changed 
by  mistaking  "kind"  for  "king,"  "man"  for  "mat," 
etc.  On  the  other  hand,  some  pupils  who  read  slowly 
and  laboriously  are  overcareful.  They  seem  not  to 
know  when  they  have  finished  with  a  paragraph,  but 
continue  to  re-read  it  lest  some  puzzling  statement 
may  be  overlooked.  Some  do  not  know  how  to  start 
quickly  on  an  assignment. 

The  remedial  drills  and  methods  of  training  which 
one  should,  use  for  those  two  types  of  readers  are,  of 
course,  diametrically  opposed  in  nature.  The  teacher 
should  require  the  careless  reader  to  explain  words, 
phrases,  and  sentences  accurately,  and  to  follow  di- 
rections carefully.  The  pupil  must  use  reading  ma- 
terial which  permits  of  accurate  interpretation.  The 

1Burgress.  May  Ayres.  "Classroom  grouping  for  silent-reading 
drill."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (December)  1921. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 


151 


teacher  must  provide  the  slow  and  overcareful  pupil 
with  exercises  which  require  him  to  read  and  think 
rapidly.  She  must  require  him  to  get  the  main 
points  of  a  paragraph  from  a  single  reading,  and  she 
must  help  him  to  develop  an  aggressive  attitude. 

Errors  made  in  oral  reading.  In  Chapter  VTT 
(page  117)  we  presented  a  table  which  shows  the 
percentage  of  frequency  of  the  four  chief  errors  made 
by  a  group  of  third-grade  pupils.  Twenty-four  per 
cent  of  the  errors  were  substitutions,  15  per  cent 
repetitions,  24  per  cent  insertions,  and  15  per  cent 
omissions  of  words  or  parts  of  words.  Since  these 
four  kinds  of  errors  comprise  78  per  cent  of  the  total 
of  all  made,  there  is  an  evident  need  for  tested 
remedial  measures  in  such  cases. 

Before  we  can  suggest  effective  remedial  measures, 
we  must  understand  the  causes  of  the  errors.  Trust- 
worthy investigations  reveal  that  the  chief  sources 
of  trouble  are  meager  vocabulary,  irregular  eye-move- 
ments, lack  of  a  knowledge  of  phonics,  narrow  eye- 
voice  span,  narrow  perception-units,  and  inability  to 
phrase  or  group  words  in  thought  units.  As  these 
defects  also  cause  difficulty  in  silent  reading,  the 
same  types  of  remedial  work  may  well  be  given  to 
pupils  in  both  kinds  of  classes. 

Anderson  and  Merton's  experiment.  Anderson  and 
Merton  report1  the  striking  case  of  a  fourth-grade 
pupil  who  was  a  very  poor  reader.  In  oral  reading, 

Anderson,  C.  J.,  and  Merton,  Elda.  "Remedial  work  in  read- 
ing: Part  II."  Elementary  School  Journal.  Vol.  20.  (June>  1920. 


152  SILENT  READING 

repetition  and  substitution  were  frequent  and  he 
seemed  not  to  apprehend  the  meanings  of  the  words 
he  read.  His  greatest  difficulty  was  an  inability  to 
phrase,  that  is,  to  group  the  words  in  idea  units.  In 
reading  any  sentence,  words  must  be  grouped  in  a 
certain  way  in  order  to  give  the  thought  the  author 
wishes  to  convey.  This  boy  did  not  recognize  this 
fact  but  divided  his  words  into  groups  by  mere 
chance.  Failing  to  understand  a  sentence,  he  re-read 
it;  he  substituted  words,  then  read  it  again,  until  he 
found  himself  utterly  confused.  • 

Remedial  instruction  in  this  case  consisted  entirely 
of  practice  in  phrasing.  It  began  with  sentences 
written  on  the  blackboard.  The  boy  used  vertical 
lines  to  mark  the  phrasing  that  he  considered  correct. 
His  first  attempt  resulted  in  this  division: 

One  morning  when  he  went  out! very  early  he  saw 

tracks  on   the  snow. 

After  being  questioned  he  decided  to  change  the 
phrasing  to  the  following: 

One  morning!  when  he  went  out  very  early!  he  saw 
tracks!  on   the  snow. 


After  he  had  become  accustomed  to  this  new  way 
of  reading,  he  began  to  use  a  third-grade  reader. 


REMEDIAL  WORK  153 

In  the  first  lesson  the  boy  read  the  selection 
through  once  without  help  of  any  kind.  As  he 
read,  the  teacher  kept  a  record  of  all  errors.  He 
was  then  given  a  small  card  which  he  was  to  use 
for  dividing  the  lines  into  word  groups.  He  then  re- 
read the  selection.  He  placed  the  card  at  the  end 
of  the  first  phrase,  read  it,  then  placed  the  card  at 
the  end  of  the  next  phrase,  read  it,  and  continued  in 
that  manner  until  he  had  finished  the  selection.  At 
first  this  was  slow  and  difficult  work.  He  often 
placed  the  card  after  the  wrong  word,  and  skillful 
questioning  was  necessary  to  lead  him  to  see  his  error. 
After  reading  the  selection  two  or  three  times  in 
this  way,  he  was  asked  to  read  it  without  the  card. 
The  result  showed  a  remarkable  change  in  this  boy's 
reading.  Errors  were  practically  eliminated,  phrasing 
was  almost  perfect,  and  expression  was  greatly  im- 
proved. The  teacher  also  kept  a  record  of  the  errors 
made  during  the  last  reading. 

Beginning  with  the  third  lesson  the  boy  was  re- 
quired to  prepare  each  lesson  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing plan.  He  first  reviewed  the  material  studied 
during  the  previous  lesson.  The  teacher  kept  a  record 
of  all  errors,  and  used  it  as  a  check  on  the  last  pre- 
ceding record  in  order  to  determine  the  extent  to 
which  memory  had  helped  the  pupil.  Following 
that  he  read  the  new  selection  the  first  time  without 
help.  The  record  of  errors  made  during  this  reading 
was  kept  very  accurately  in  order  to  determine  the 


154  SILENT  READING 

pupil's  rate  of  improvement,  since  his  ability  to  read 
at  sight  was  to  be  the  true  test  of  the  success  or 
failure  of  the  training.  With  the  aid  of  the  card 
he  then  read  the  selection  carefully  two  or  three 
times.  The  teacher  kept  no  record  of  the  errors 
made  during  this  reading.  She  devoted  all  her  time 
to  helping  the  pupil  with  the  phrasing.  The  pupil 
read  the  selection  the  last  time  without  using  the 
card.  The  teacher  kept  a  record  of  the  errors  made 
during  this  reading,  in  order  to  demonstrate  to  the 
pupil  the  effect  of  his  practice. 

In  May  this  boy  averaged  only  1  error  in  every  32 
words  of  fourth-grade  material  read  at  sight.  That 
was  a  decided  improvement  over  the  February  record 
which  showed  an  average  of  1  error  in  every  7  words 
of  third-grade  material.  In  all,  this  pupil  had  only 
thirty  such  lessons.  During  the  first  ten,  based  on 
third-grade  material,  he  read  1,892  words  and  aver- 
aged 1  repetition  in  every  59  words.  During  the  last 
ten  lessons,  based  on  fourth-grade  material,  he  read 
3,045  words  with  no  repetitions.  This  improvement 
in  the  ability  to  read  is  the  more  noteworthy  when 
one  considers  that  during  the  later  lessons  the  boy 
read  more  difficult  material,  although  the  recitation 
period  was  not  lengthened. 

Gray's  experiment.  Gray  cites1  the  case  of  a  fifth- 
jrrade  boy  who  read  slowly  because  he  recognized 

'Gray,  W.  S.  "Individual  difficulties  In  silent  reading  in  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  prades."  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  II.  Public 
School  Publishing  Company.  Bloomington.  Illinois,  1921. 


REMEDIAL  WORK  155 

only  a  very  small  unit  at  each  fixation  of  the  eyes. 
An  investigation  of  his  difficulty  showed  clearly  that 
he  did  not  recognize  words  in  groups  or  thought  units. 
In  order  to  provide  training  in  the  rapid  recognition 
of  word  groups,  eight  phrase  books  were  prepared,  in 
each  of  which  a  phrase  was  pasted  on  each  page. 
The  first  book  contained  ten  very  simple  phrases 
taken  from  a  primer.  Each  succeeding  book  in  the 
series  contained  the  same  number  of  longer  and  more 
difficult  phrases.  The  eighth  book  contained  phrases 
from  a  sixth  reader.  In  conducting  drill  exercises, 
the  teacher  flashed  each  page  so  quickly  that  the 
pupil  had  time  for  only  one  fixation  of  the  eyes.  As 
soon  as  a  phrase  was  exposed,  the  pupil  told  what 
he  had  seen.  Each  entirely  correct  response  was 
graded  ten  points.  This  drill  was  continued  for  four- 
teen days.  Each  day  some  thirty  phrases  were  flashed. 
No  phrase  book  was  discontinued  until  the  pupil  was 
able  to  make  a  perfect  score  on  two  successive  days. 
During  the  fourteen  days'  drill,  six  books  were  used, 
on  five  of  which  the  pupil  twice  scored  a  hundred. 

Flash   cards  bearing  phrases   are   equally  effective 
for  this  sort  of  drill. 

The  effect  of  the  phrase-book  drill  in  increasing  the 
rate  of  reading,  in  the  case  cited,  is  shown  by  the  data 
below. 
LESSON  1     2     3     4     5     6     7     8     9    10  11  12    13     14 

Words  read!  60  6Q  70  ?9  g()  g6  86   ?0  80  95  no  08  10o  105 
per  minute  j 


156  SILENT  READING 

Reading-  abilities  and  reading  materials.  The  re- 
sults of  some  recent  studies  discredit  the  belief  in 
one  general  reading  ability.  Bather,  there  are  as 
many  reading  abilities  as  there  are  types  of  material 
and  kinds  of  reading  attitudes.  The  following  para- 
graphs treat  of  the  effects  of  material  and  attitude  on 
reading.  The  Presseys  found1  that  pupils  who  rank 
among  the  best  when  reading  narrative  material,  are 
often  among  the  poorest  when  reading  general  scien- 
tific material.  The  correlation  between  the  scores 
made  in  the  two  examinations  is  low.  The  pedagogical 
inference  is  clear.  Training  pupils  to  read  one  type 
of  material  well  does  not  insure  their  reading  all 
types  well.  Each  type  of  reading  material  calls  for 
a  particular  method  of  attack. 

Reading  attitudes.  The  type  of  material  often 
affects  the  attitude  of  the  reader.  Concerning  this 
Parker  says: 

For  example,  contrast  the  attitudes  in  reading  poetry 
and  in  rapidly  scanning  a  newspaper  column.  In  the 
poetry  reading  your  attitude  is  likely  to  include  enjoy- 
ing the  lilt  and  swing  of  the  rhythm,  and  your  read- 
ing, consequently,  will  include  careful  rhythmic  phras- 
ing. In  the  newspaper  scanning  your  attitude  is  one 
of  selecting  much  of  the  material  and  actively  'grabbing 
off*  a  few  ideas  or  statements.  Another  example  of 
contrasting  attitudes  in  reading  is  found  in  reading 
the  'funnies*  in  the  newspaper  and  reading  Lincoln's 
Gettysburg  address.  The  emotional  'set*  of  our  mind 

lPressey.  L.  C.  and  -S.  L.  "A  critical  study  of  the  concept 
of  silent-reading  ability."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
Vol.  12,  (January)  1921. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

in  the  case  of  reading  the  'funnies'  is  such  that  it 
shocks  us  to  think  of  approaching  Lincoln's  address 
with  the  same  attitude.1 

The  kinds  of  exercises  used  in  reading  classes 
should  be  as  varied  as  the  demands  made  on  the 
reader  in  connection  with  his  later  reading,  both  in 
and  out  of  school.  The  average  individual  is  called 
upon  to  utilize  reading  ability  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
He  reads  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  coherent  repro- 
duction later,  or  for  enjoyment  and  appreciation. 
Some  scan  an  article  rapidly  in  search  of  the  answer 
to  some  question  or  problem,  others  to  get  the  author's 
point  of  view  or  philosophy.  Some  readers  wish  to 
weigh  and  evaluate  the  ideas  or  conclusions  in  an 
article,  some  to  discover  new  problems  or  new  aspects 
of  the  topic  under  consideration.  Sometimes  one 
reads  in  order  to  organize  the  main  points  of  an 
article  in  the  form  of  a  summary. 

Tn  addition  to  having  a  definite  purpose  for  the 
guidance  of  our  reading,  we  need  to  do  much  collateral 
thinking  when  we  read.  Lyman  calls  that  " assimila- 
tive reading."  The  idea  is  illustrated  by  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  following  lines  from  Kipling's 
"Recessional." 

God  of  our  fathers,  known  of  old, 
Lord  of  our  far-flung  battle-line, 

Beneath  whose  awful  hands  we  hold 
Dominion  over  palm  and  pine — 

Barker,  Samuel  Chester.  "How  to  teach  bejrinnine  reading:." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (Octeber)  1921. 


158  SILENT  READING 

In  reading  the  last  line,  how  many  pupils  will 
image  the  luxuriant  palms  of  tropical  India  and  con- 
trast them  with  the  tall  rugged  pines  of  the  northern 
Canadian  forests?  Unless  the  reader  does  such  col- 
lateral thinking,  he  can  appreciate  neither  the  extent 
of  the  British  Empire  nor  the  responsibilities  of  the 
British  people.  Unless  pupils  are  trained  to  reflect 
when  they  read,  the  words  of  a  poem  may  be  mis- 
taken for  the  poem  itself,  although  the  words  are 
"only  instructions  as  to  what  to  do  with  our  mem- 
ories and  our  imaginations,  our  reason,  and  our 
understanding,  in  order  to  create  within  ourselves 
the  story  of  the  poem."1 

One  may  ask  why  some  pupils  are  able  to  read 
and  reproduce  narrative  prose  and  poetry  reasonably 
well,  but  are  confused  by  highly  factual,  well-organ- 
ized material  such  as  is  found  in  textbooks  of  geo- 
graphy, physiology,  nature  study,  general  science,  and 
arithmetic.  This  is  partially  explained  when  one  con- 
siders that  specific  training  and  instruction  in  reading 
is  generally  confined  to  the  reading  period,  and  that 
narrative  prose  and  poetry  are  the  materials  usually 
read  and  discussed.  It  is  also  likely  that  pupils  read 
narrative  prose  and  poetry  with  the  "mental  set" 
of  enjoyment  and  leisure,  while  other  kinds  of  ma- 
terial demand  keen  analysis,  differentiation,  evalua- 
tion, and  organization.  The  teacher  should  endeavor 
to  create  a  proper  "mental  set"  for  factual  material. 

1Kerfoot,  J.  B.  HOMO  to  Read.  Hougrhton  Mifflin  Company. 
Boston.  1916. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 

Study  habits.  Many  pupils  read  all  material  in 
the  same  way.  In  their  textbook  reading  they  devote 
as  much  time  to  trivial  matters  as  to  important  ones. 
Even  college  and  high-school  students  often  lack  the 
ability  to  read  with  discrimination.  The  following  para- 
graph is  suggestive  of  what  one  can  do  to  prevent 
pupils  from  forming  the  habit  of  indiscriminate  read- 
ing, and  to  correct  the  habit  if  it  is  already  formed. 

If,  during  a  recitation,  a  teacher  never  remarks  that 
one  thing  is  more  important  or  less  important  than 
another,  if  she  never  asks  questions  that  require  pupils 
to  judge  of  relative  values,  and  if  she  never  indicates 
emphasis  when  making  assignments,  or  never  points  out 
that  certain  parts  of  the  material  should  be  read  rap- 
idly, other  parts  carefully  —  how  then  can  she  expect 
pupils  to  form  the  habit  of  varying  their  rate  of  read- 
ing or  to  become  able  to  judge  when  they  may  profit- 
ably do  so?  Many  college  students  admit  that  their 
teachers  gave  them  the  impression  that  any  study  which 
was  less  than  a  complete  mastery  of  material  was  not 
academically  respectable. 

The  important  task  of  the  teacher  is  to  get  pupils 
to  ask  more  significant  questions,  not  only  during  the 
recitation  but  also  when  they  are  reading  and  prepar- 
ing their  lessons.  The  methods  which  should  be  em- 
ployed by  the  teacher  who  wishes  to  stimulate  her  pupils 
to  do  assimilative  reading  can  not  be  scientifically  de- 
termined until  we  discover  the  characteristics  of  a  skilled 
silent  reader.  According  to  Lyman  the  skillful  reader 


160  SILENT  READING 

is  one  who  reads  with  a  definite  purpose,  having  some 
problem  in  mind;  one  who  grasps  the  author's  point 
of  view  and  central  theme,  and  lays  hold  on  the  order 
and  arrangement  of  his  ideas;  one  who  pauses  occa- 
sionally in  order  to  summarize  and  repeat,  and  con- 
stantly questions  what  he  reads;  one  who  continually 
supplements  from  his  own  mental  stock,  judges  the  value 
of  what  he  reads,  varies  the  rate  of  his  progress  through 
the  reading,  and  ties  up  what  he  reads  with  problems 
of  his  own.  The  efficient  reader  does  all  these  things, 
whether  or  not  he  is  aware  of  it. 

Whether  the  teacher  accepts  Lyman's  characteristics 
of  the  skillful  silent  reader,  or  those  given  on  previous 
pages,  is  of  little  consequence.  The  important  thing 
is  to  provide  devices,  methods,  and  exercises  which  will 
enable  pupils  to  attain  those  objectives.  In  other  words, 
teachers  must  make  a  direct  effort  to  increase  the  child 's 
comprehension,  and  then  must  help  him  to  formulate 
a  plan  for  doing  those  things  which  enable  him  to 
comprehend  well.  When  teacher  and  pupils  realize  the 
definite  standards  they  must  attain,  and  the  particular 
mental  habits  which  must  be  formed,  their  work  becomes 
constructive. 

Methods  for  developing  assimilative  reading  habits 
are  discussed  and  illustrated  in  Part  II.  The  sugges- 
tions advise  teachers  to  give  pupils  study  questions  on 
the  following  day's  assignment,  to  call  for  those  answers 
and  have  them  discussed  on  the  following  day,  to  en- 

1Lyman,  R.  L,.  "The  teaching:  of  assimilative  reading  in  the 
Junior  high  school."  School  Revise.  Vol.  28.  (October)  1920. 


REMEDIAL  WORK 


161 


courage  pupils  to  ask  questions  in  class,  to  encourage 
wholesome,  thoughtful  class  discussion  and  constructive 
criticism,  to  teach  pupils  how  to  find  the  central  thought 
in  each  paragraph  and  how  to  outline  or  summarize 
the  whole  lesson,  to  encourage  them  to  select  leading 
questions  for  discussion  on  the  following  day,  and  to 
create  in  the  pupils  a  critical  attitude  toward  the  au- 
thor's data,  point  of  view,  and  conclusions. 

Thorndike's  experiment.  Thorndike's  study  of 
"The  Understanding  of  Sentences"1  attempts  to  deter- 
mine the  fundamental  causes  of  certain  types  of  loose 
reading.  He  checked  the  mistakes  made  by  elementary 
and  high-school  pupils  who  read  certain  paragraphs, 
each  of  which  was  accompanied  by  five  or  more  ques- 
tions which  the  pupils  were  to  answer.  They  were  in- 
structed to  read  each  paragraph  as  many  times  as  nec- 
essary in  order  to  enable  them  to  answer  the  questions 
correctly.  The  following  specimen  shows  the  nature 
of  the  material,  questions,  and  instructions  used  in  the 
experiment. 

Nearly  fifteen  thousand  of  the  city's  workers  joined 
in  the  parade  on  September  seventh,  and  passed  before 
two  hundred  thousand  cheering  spectators.  There  were 
workers  of  both  sexes  in  the  parade,  though  the  men 
far  outnumbered  the  women. 

1.  What  is  said  about  the  number  of  persons  who 
marched  in  the  parade? 

2.  Which  sex  was  in  the  majority? 

'Thorndike,  E  L.  "The  understanding  of  sentences."  Elementary 
School  Journal,  Vol.  18,  (October)  1917. 


162  SILENT  READING 

3.  What  did  the  people  who  looked  at  the  parade 
do  when  it  passed  by? 

4.  How  many  people  saw  the  parade? 

5.  On  what  date  did  the  event  described  in  the 
paragraph  occur? 

A  careful  study  of  the  answers  to  the  first  four  ques- 
tions showed  clearly  that  the  term  " fifteen  thousand" 
so  obsessed  pupils  that  they  could  think  of  little  else. 

"OVKR-PO-ntNT" 

ELEMENT  QUESTION  RESPONSE 

1  "passed  before  20,000  and  15,000" 

2  "the  fifteen  thousand" 

"fifteen  thousand"          3        "fifteen  thousand  of  the  parade" 
4        "fifteen  thousand" 

"Fifteen  thousand"  is  a  good  example  of  a  word 
being  "over- potent"  in  reading.  This  same  study  re- 
ports many  interesting  illustrations  of  the  under-potency 
of  words,  and  shows  that  under-potency  is  unquestion- 
ably the  complement  of  over-potency. 

The  significance  of  this  study  is  best  shown  by  the 
following  paragraph  taken  from  the  account  of  it. 

There  seems  to  be  a  strong  tendency  in  human  nature 
to  accept  as  satisfactory  whatever  ideas  arise  quickly 
-—to  trust  any  course  of  thought  that  runs  along  flu- 
entiv.  If  the  question  makes  the  pupil  think  of  anything, 
or  if  he  finds  anything  in  the  paragraph  that  seems  to 
belong  to  the  question,  he  accepts  it  without  criticism. 
.  .  .  This  fishing  around  in  the  text  for  something  to 
use,  and  its  use  without  reorganization,  is  perhaps  the 
most  debased  form  of  selective  thinking  which  school 
work  shows.  .  .  .  The  extent  to  which  it  prevails 
amongst  pupils  in  even  the  higher  grades  shows  the 
need  for  practice  in  reading  and  study.  I  am  inclined 


REMEDIAL  WORK  163 

to  think,  however,  that  the  cure  for  it  is  not  to  repress 
the  verbatim  use  of  wrong,  irrelevant,  or  roughly  appro- 
priated quotations,  but  to  permit  it  plus  careful  exami- 
nation of  the  quotations  to  see  if  they  really  do  meet 
the  need.  .  .  .  The  comprehension  of  textbooks 
.  .  .  (is)  far  above  the  level  of  merely  "passive**  or 
"receptive'*  work.  "When  the  reading  of  textbooks 
.  .  .  is  really  passive  or  receptive,  comprehension  will 
rarely  result.  .  .  .  "To  read"  means  "to  think"  as 
truly  as  does  "to  evaluate,"  or  "to  invent,"  or  "to 
demonstrate,"  or  "to  verify." 

It  is  likely  that  some  of  the  remedial  measures  sug- 
gested on  preceding  pages  would  not  be  considered  such 
(technically  speaking)  in  some  research  laboratories. 
We  believe,  however,  that  from  a  pedagogical  point  of 
view,  any  disability  that  hinders  the  pupil's  reading 
achievement  should  be  diagnosed,  and  that  remedial 
measures  should  then  be  used. 

"We  have  cited  several  studies  which  discuss  cases 
typical  of  classroom  conditions,  and  we  have  quoted 
verbatim  from  some  of  them.  That  plan  was  used  so 
as  to  help  the  busy  teacher  find  the  kind  of  diffi- 
culty discussed,  and  to  give  her  a  definite  idea  of  the 
methods  to  be  used  for  remedial  work.  The  regular 
classroom  teacher's  limited  time  makes  the  use  of  an 
elaborate  method  impossible.  She  can,  however,  group 
pupils  who  experience  similar  difficulties  and  so  obtain 
more  time  for  drill  than  when  she  tries  to  train  pupils 
individually.  Suggestions  for  the  handling  of  such 
groups  and  plans  of  various  sorts  for  use  in  instruc- 
tion will  be  found  in  Part  IT. 


164  SILENT  READING 

SUMMARY     * 

1.  Experiments  indicate  that  there  is  no  general   reading 
ability. 

2.  We  must  train  children  to  read  different  kinds  of  ma- 
terial. 

3.  An   experiment  on  more  than  256  children  shows  that 
pupils    are    unable    to    use    the    dictionary,    a    table    of 
contents,  an  alphabetical  index,  or  cross  references. 

4.  The    overemphasis    of    oral    reading,    phonics,    pointing 
to  words,  and  word  focus  all  tend  to  narrow  the  child's 
perception-unit 

5.  It   is   advisable   to   group   pupils   of   like   reading   diffi- 
culties for  specific  remedial   exercises. 

6.  Assimilative  reading   involves  the  higher  mental   proc- 
esses of  imagining,  evaluating,  reasoning,  and  judging. 

7.  Specific   training   to  develop  a  mental   attitude   for  re- 
flective reading  should  be  given. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

1  {rooks,  S.  S.  Improving  School*  by  Standardized  Tests. 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1022. 

Carter,  U.  E.  "Teaching  a  study  habit."  School  Review, 
Vol.  29,  (November  and  December)  1920. 

Gray,  W.  S.  'The  use  of  tests  in  improving  Instruction." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  19,  (October)  1918. 

Martin,  Frederick.  "Foreign  accent."  Supplement  to  the 
Xiilldbus  in  English  for  the  Elementary  Schools  of  New 
York  City.  Department  of  Education,  New  York  City. 

Schmitt,  Clara.  "Developmental  alexia:  Congenital  word- 
blindness  or  inability  to  learn  to  read."  Elementary 
School  Journal  Vol.  18,  (May)  1918. 

Sutherland,  A.  H.  "Correcting  school  disabilities."  Ele- 
mentary School  Journal,  Vol.  23,  (September)  1922. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  "Reading  as  reasoning:  A  study  of 
mistakes  in  paragraph  reading."  Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  Vol.  8,  (June)  1917. 


CHAPTER  IX 

MEASURING  COMPREHENSION  AND 
RETENTION 

The  importance  of  these  measurements.  The  in- 
ability of  many  pupils  to  comprehend  and  retain  any 
considerable  portion  of  the  material  they  read  is  shown 
by  the  data  given  in  Chapters  III  and  IV.  The  chief 
causes  of  the  low  scores  reported  there  are  the  care- 
less, indifferent,  and  purposeless  reading  habits  of  the 
pupils  themselves. 

Thorndike  says,  "  There  seems  to  be  a  strong  tend- 
ency in  human  nature  to  accept  as  satisfactory  what- 
ever ideas  arise  quickly,  to  trust  any  course  of  thought 
that  runs  along  fluently. "  When  reading  a  paragraph 
in  order  to  find  the  answer  to  a  question,  the  pupil 
is  often  willing  to  accept  without  criticism  the  first 
idea  that  seems  to  bear  upon  the  question.  This  often 
leads  to  the  formation  of  a  habit  of  superficial  reading. 

Breaking1  bad  habits.  From  a  psychological  point 
of  view,  the  most  economical  way  to  break  up  a  habit 
is  to  present  situations  which  will  produce  effects  that 
are  the  direct  opposite  of  it.  This  being  true,  an  effec- 
tive method  of  overcoming  slothful,  careless  reading 
habits  is  by  frequently  testing  the  pupil's  ability  to 

165 


166  SILENT  READING 

comprehend  and  recall  what  he  reads.  Definite,  brief, 
written  tests  are  valuable  aids  to  this  work  because 
they  measure  the  efficiency  of  teaching  by  determining 
the  amount  of  change  which  education  has  produced. 
Testing  is  always  good  teaching  because  a  child  leams 
when  he  is  being  tested.  The  test  requires  recall,  or- 
ganization, and  evaluation  of  facts  and  experiences. 
It  shows  how  much  the  pupil  has  accomplished  and 
how  well  he  has  achieved,  things  that  he  should  know. 
That  information  may  be  used  to  increase  the  pupil's 
efforts  and  his  interest  in  reading;  it  may  suggest  cer- 
tain remedial  measures  to  the  teacher.  The  test  helps 
to  develop  the  ability  to  read  closely,  an  ability  which 
is  important  for  pupils  in  the  primary  grades,  who  are 
usually  mature  enough  to  comprehend  and  remember 
the  outstanding  points  in  the  factual  and  expository 
material  which  they  read. 

Principles  to  be  observed.  The  busy  classroom 
teacher  must  be  brief  and  definite  when  she  attempts 
to  measure  comprehension  and  retention.  Her  ques- 
tions must  be  concise,  and  they  should  require  definite 
data  for  answers.  The  tests  should  require  a  maximum 
of  thinking  and  a  minimum  of  writing.  The  method 
of  measuring  comprehension  employed  in  some  of  the 
standardized  reading  tests  should  either  be  adapted  or 
adopted  outright  by  teachers  who  wish  to  get  accurate 
measures  quickly.  The  following  examples  taken  from 
Monroe's  Standardized  Sileni -reading  Tests  show  the 
correct  method  of  handling  such  work. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION 

A  silly  young  cricket,  accustomed  to  sing 

Through  the  warm  sunny  months  of  gay  summer  and  spring, 

Began  to  complain,  when  he  found  that  at  home 

His  cupboard  was  empty,  and  winter  had  come. 

Draw  a  line  under  the  word   which  hest  describes 

the  cricket. 

wise  faithful  foolish  proud  prudent 

"Blow,  blow,  thou  winter  wind, 
Thou  art  not  so  unkind 
As  man's  ingratitude; 
Thy  tooth  is  not  so  keen, 
Because  thou  art  not  seen 
Although  thy  breath  be  rude." 

In  the  above  paragraph  with  what  is  the  wind  com- 
pared? 

"We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field 
as  a  final  resting  place  for  those  who  here  gave  their 
lives  that  the  nation  might  live.  But  in  a  larger  sense, 
we  cannot  dedicate  this  ground.  It  is  for  us,  the  liv- 
ing, rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished 
work,  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us." 

The  above  paragraph  is  taken  from  Lincoln's  Gettys- 
burg Address.  What  was  it  he  thought  we  should, 
dedicate?  Home,  land,  lives,  money,  monument? 

Measuring1  comprehension.  The  demand  most  fre- 
quently made  upon  one's  reading  ability  is  to  read  a 
selection  with  sufficient  care  to  be  able  to  reproduce 
the  leading  incidents  or  mention  main  points  from  mem- 
ory. That  requires  an  understanding  of  what  one  reads, 
and  the  retention  of  a  considerable  portion  of  it.  Most 
tests  are  combined  measurements  of  the  pupil's  memory 
and  comprehension. 

It  is  often  desirable,  however,  to  isolate  and  meas- 


168  SILENT  READING 

ure  only  the  comprehension  ability  of  pupils,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  scope  of  their  ability  to  comprehend 
rather  than  remember,  to  determine  the  extent  to  which 
comprehension  affects  scores  made  in  tests  and  quizzes, 
to  stimulate  careful,  thoughtful  reading  and  to  make 
it  a  habit,  and  to  learn  something  about  pupils'  study 
habits  so  as  to  determine  the  necessary  remedial  meas- 
ures. The  following  lessons  are  suggestive  of  methods 
one  may  use  to  measure  comprehension  alone. 

LESSON  I 
The  Sandpiper 

Across  the  narrow  beach  we  flit, 

One  little  sandpiper  and  I; 
And  fast  I  gather,  bit  by  bit, 

The  scattered  driftwood,  bleached  and  dry. 

The  wild  waves  reach  their  hands  for  it, 
The  wild  wind  raves,  the  tide  runs  high, 

As  up  and  down  the  beach 'we  flit, - 
One  little  sandpiper  and  I. 

Above  our  heads  the  sullen  clouds 
Scud  black  and  swift  across  the  sky; 

Like  silent  ghosts  in  misty  shrouds 
Stand  out  the  white  lighthouses  high. 

Almost  as  far  as  eye  can  reach 

I  see  the  close-reefed  vessels  fly, 
As  fast  we  flit  along  the  beach, — 

One  little  sandpiper  and  I. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION 

I  watch  him  as  he  skims  along, 

Uttering  his  sweet  and  mournful  cry ; 

He  starts  not  at  my  fitful  song, 
Or  flash  of  fluttering  drapery. 

He  has  no  thought  of  any  wrong ; 

He  scans  me  with  a  fearless  eye; 
Stanch  friends  are  we,  well  tried  and  strong, 

The  little  sandpiper  and  I. 

Comrade,  where  wilt  thou  be  tonight 
When  the  loosed  storm  breaks  furiously? 

My  driftwood  fire  will  burn  so  bright! 
To  what  warm  shelter  canst  thou  fly? 

I  do  not  fear  for  thee,  though  wroth 
The  tempest  rushes  through  the  sky; 

For  are  we  not  God's  children  both, 
Thou,  little  sandpiper,  and  I? 

This  poem  describes  an  incident  in  the  life  of  the 
author,  Celia  Thaxter.  As  is  the  case  with  many  other 
selections,  pupils  will  appreciate  it  more  if  the  teach- 
er's assignment  gives  the  setting  and  includes  an  ac- 
count of  the  incidents  which  occasioned  its  production. 
There  is  evident  need  of  a  preliminary  discussion,  if 
only  to  clarify  the  child's  conception  of  life  in  a  light- 
house on  a  barren  island. 

Immediately  after  the  pupils  have  read  the  poem 
through  once,  either  during  the  study  period  or  in  class, 
the  teacher  should  present  the  questions  given  below. 
Pupils  should  quietly  and  quickly  write  their  answers 


170  SILENT  READING 

to  the  questions;  they  should  refer  to  the  selection  as 
often  as  necessary.  The  pupils  should  grade  the  papers 
under  the  teacher's  supervision.  When  all  have  finished, 
one  pupil  should  read  the  first  question  and  the  answer 
as  those  appear  on  his  own  paper  or  the  one  he  is  grad- 
ing. In  case  of  disagreement  as  to  the  correctness  of 
the  answer,  refer  the  pupils  to  the  textbook.  This 
method  shows  children  that  reading  must  be  an  active, 
observing,  thinking  process. 

Questions  based  on  "The  Sandpiper" 

1.  Two  words  tell  the  kind  of  wood  the  girl  gath- 
ered and  the  place  where  she  found  it.    Write 
the  words. 

2.  What  were  the  ghosts? 

3.  What  else  might  have  gathered  the  wood? 

4.  Why  were  the  vessels  close-reefed? 

5.  What  line  tells  whether  the  bird  was  flying 
high  or  low? 

6.  Check  the  two  stanzas  which  you  think  indi- 
cate  the  kind  of  night  it  will  be. 

7.  What  two  words  show  best  the  depth  of  friend- 
ship between  the  girl  and  bird? 

8.  What  was  the  "fluttering  drapery?" 

9.  What  stanza  tells  that  the  girl  is  worried  about 
the  sandpiper's  welfaref 

10.   What  consoled  her? 

LESSON  II 

This   lesson   should    be   based   on   Robin   Hood,   the 
Archer  Hero.1     In  using  it  the  teacher  should  follow 

*See  the  footnote   on   page  282. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION 


171 


a    procedure   similar   to   that   suggested   for   use    with 
Lesson  I. 

Questions  based  mi  "Robin  Hood" 

1.  Was  Robin  Hood  or  the  foresters  most  to  blame 
in  the   deer-killing  incident  which  led  Robin 
to  become  an  outlaw? 

2.  Why  was  Little  John  so  named? 

3.  Why  did  the  sheriff  hold  a  shooting  match  ? 

4.  In  what  three  ways  did  Robin  Hood  disguise 
himself  so   that   the   sheriff  might  not  know 
him? 

5.  What  is  the  point  of  highest  excitement  in  the 
chapter? 

6.  Select  the  most  witty  line  in  the  chapter. 

The  teacher  may  use  the  two  sets  of  questions  given 
for  definitely  measuring  the  pupils'  ability  to  compre- 
hend the  selections  on  which  they  are  based.  She  may 
also  use  them  to  direct  the  pupils'  reading  during  the 
study  period.  Since  they  require  brief,  definite  answers 
they  are  easily  graded. 

How  TO  MEASURE  COMPREHENSION  AND  RETENTION 
Reproduction.  The  reproduction  method  consists 
in  having  the  pupils  reproduce  as  much  of  a  selection 
as  they  can  after  reading  one  or  two  minutes.  For- 
merly this  method  was  very  popular  as  a  means  of 
measuring  comprehension  and  retention.  Recently  it  has 
become  less  so.  A  recent  criticism  of  the  method  is  as 
follows. 

The  scoring  of  the  reproduction  is  based  on  the  num- 


172  SILENT  READING 

ber  of  ideas  reproduced.  In  correcting  the  material 
it  is  very  difficult  at  times  to  determine  whether  th.- 
idea  had  been  reproduced  by  the  pupil  or  not.  In 
many  other  instances,  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  instead 
of  reproducing  the  paragraph  which  he  has  just  read, 
the  pupil  brings  into  the  reproduction  many  ideas  based 
upon  his  experience. 
Gist  says  of  this  test: 

Many  pupils  can  give  from  memory  what  they  have 
read  without  being  able  to  answer  questions  based  upon 
the  thought.  Questions  directed  so  as  to  bring  out  the 
thought  seem  to  secure  better  results  than  asking  the 
pupils  to  tell  what  they  have  read.1 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  use  of  the  repro- 
duction method  tends  to  cause  one  to  mistake  fluency 
of  expression  for  detailed  knowledge.  Many  teachers 
believe  that  it  tests  memory  rather  than  comprehen- 
sion. Moreover,  the  task  of  correcting  the  results  is 
such  a  heavy  one  that  that  feature  alone  deters  many 
from  using  it. 

Completion  tests.  Some  form  of  completion  test 
is  held  in  high  favor  by  several  experimenters.  The 
following  examples  are  taken  from  Starch's  Geography 
Test:  Series  A. 

1.  The    tropics    are   degrees    on    each    side    of 

the  equator. 

2.  About  —  of  the   earth's   surface   is   land, 
and  is  water. 

3.  -  -   is   melted   rock   coming  from   a   volcano. 

•Gist,  Arthur  S.  "Silent  reading."  Elementary  School  Journal, 
Vol.  18,  (September)  1917. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION  173 

Teachers  who  use  the  completion  test  usually  place 
the  statements  on  the  blackboard  and  require  the  pupils 
to  write  only  the  words  needed  to  fill  the  blanks.  Such 
tests  can  be  given  quickly,  and  the  scores  can  be  read- 
ily determined.  If  the  test  is  skillfully  constructed, 
the  teacher  has  a  fairly  accurate  measure  of  the  pupils' 
ability  to  comprehend  and  retain  the  ideas  read.  This 
test  practically  eliminates  the  verbosity  whieh  pupils 
sometimes  indulge  in. 

Recognition  tests.  This  test  is  based  on  the  assump- 
tion that  one  often  comprehends  what  he  reads  but 
is  unable  to  recall  much  of  it  when  tested  by  the  ordi- 
nary oral  or  written  quiz.  One  may,  however,  be  able 
to  recognize  the  truths  or  facts  included  in  the  matter 
read  when  those  appear  in  conjunction  with  other  data. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  the  recognition  test. 

1.  Boston  is  the  capital  of  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  New  York. 

2.  The  most  southern  state  in  the  United  States 
is  New  Mexico,  Texas,  Oregon,  Florida. 

3.  The  corn  belt  is  in  the  Western  States,  the 
New  England  States,  the  Southern  States,  the 
Central  States. 

Whether  this  test  is  given  orally  or  written  on  the 
blackboard,  the  pupil  is  to  write  down  only  the  cor- 
rect words.  This  test  forms  a  part  of  several  standard 
measurements  of  general  intelligence.  Little  time  is 
necessary  to  give  the  test  and  to  score  the  results.  The 
error  which  might  come  from  the  operation  of  the  law 


174  SILENT  READING 

of  chance  is  largely  cared  for  in  that  there  are  four 
possible  answers  to  each  question. 

The  question  method.  The  type  of  test  which  most 
teachers  use  and  will  likely  continue  to  use  is  some  form 
of  direct  question.  However,  the  other  tests  described 
ought  to  be  employed  to  supplement  this  direct-ques- 
tion method,  because  a  more  accurate  measure  of  the 
pupil's  reading  ability  is  assured  when  several  tests 
are  used.  A  variety  of  tests  also  relieves  both  pupils 
and  teachers  of  the  monotony  of  testing.  Brevity  and 
definiteneas  should  be  the  criteria  of  every  direct-ques- 
tion test.  The  studies  reported  on  the  following  pages 
suggest  types  of  questions  that  may  be  used  as  meas- 
ures of  comprehension  and  recall. 

Miss  Waldman  reports1  an  experiment  in  which  she 
succeeded  in  increasing  the  reading  comprehension  abil- 
ity of  a  fourth-grade  class.  The  following  questions 
and  answers  are  typical  of  the  means  she  used  to  de- 
termine comprehension.  She  selected  the  material  from 
the  story1  of  "Davy  and  the  Goblins."  The  pupils 
read  the  selection  expecting  to  be  tested  for  a  knowl- 
edge of  its  content. 

Questions  based  on  "Davy  and  the  Goblins" 

1.  Who  said,  "Oh,  if  you  please,  I  can't  go"? 

2.  Who  said,  "Rubbish!     Ask  the  colonel "T 

'Waldman,  Bessie.  "Definite  Improvement  of  reading:  ability 
in  a  fourth-grade  class."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  21. 
(December)  1920. 

This  selection  appears  in  the  Riverside  Fourth  Reader  pub- 
lished by  Houghton  Mifflin  Company.  Boston. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION 

3.  Who  was  a  silly  looking  little  man  made  of 
lead? 

4.  Where  did  he  stand? 

5.  What  did  he  hold  in  his  arms? 

6.  Who  felt  quite  safe  in  looking  up  at  him  and 
asking    permission    to    go    on    the    Believing 
Voyage  ? 

7.  Who  nodded  his  head  and  cried  out  in  a  little 
cracked  voice,  "Why  certainly"? 

8.  Who  jumped  down  off  the  knob  of  the  andiron  ? 

9.  What  fell  over  on  its  face  upon  the  floor,  as 
softly  as  if  it  had  been  a  feather  bed! 

10.    What  was  really  a  sort  of  boat? 

Correct  Answers 

1.  Davy  6.  Davy 

2.  Goblin  7.  Colonel 

3.  Colonel  8.  Goblin 

4.  Mantelshelf  9.  Clock 

5.  Clock  10.  Clock 

Many  teachers  have  little  faith  in  the  so-called  "mem- 
ory" or  "information"  question.  They  believe  that 
the  teacher's  questions  and  the  textbooks  should  stimu- 
late inference,  deduction,  and  judgment.  The  popu- 
larity of  the  problem-project  method  of  teaching  and 
of  the  modern  textbooks  which  are  based  on  that  method 
indicate  that  the  attitude  is  at  present  common  among 
educators.  This  is  the  sign  of  a  wholesome  educational 
tendency. 

But  can  there  be  constructive  thinking  without  some- 
thing to  think  about?  Are  not  the  facts  of  the  case 


176  SILENT  READING 

at  necessary  outside  the  court  as  within  it,  if  justice 
is  to  prevail!  Is  it  not  possible  that  we  may  have 
overworked  the  case  against  memorizing  and  memory 
work,  rote  memory  excepted? 

Buckingham1  tested  159  eighth-grade  pupils  with  two 
types  of  history  questions,  the  memory  or  information 
type,  and  the  reasoning  or  judgment  type.  His  con- 
clusions stated  in  the  following  paragraph,  based  on 
data  derived  from  the  experiment,  should  challenge  all 
contrary  and  merely  opinionated  statements. 

The  steps  we  have  taken  may,  therefore,  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  159  eighth-grade  children  have  been 
tested  in  a  series  of  information  (memory)  questions, 
and  likewise  in  a  series  of  thought  questions,  and  the 
relationship  between  their  achievements  in  these  two 
scries  of  questions  permits  us  to  conclude  that  a  test 
of  the  memory  ability  of  school  children  in  history 
affords  a  reasonably  accurate  index  not  only  of  mem- 
ory ability  itself,  but  also  of  ability  to  think.  Wher- 
ever it  is  practicable  to  do  so,  however,  children  should 
be  tested  directly  on  thought  questions,  that  is,  on  ques- 
tions of  inference  and  questions  requiring  reasoning 
and  a  judement  of  values.  Ordinarily,  however,  test- 
ing is  carried  out  with  larger  numbers  of  children,  and 
the  answers  have  to  be  handled  quickly.  In  such  a 
case,  the  ease  with  which  an  information  (memory) 
test  may  be  administered  and  rated  is  a  decided  advan- 
tage; and  it  is  some  satisfaction  to  know  that,  from 
the  results,  reasonably  accurate  inferences  may  be  drawn 
regarding  types  of  ability  other  than  those  directly 
tested. 

'Buckingham.  R.  B.  "Correlation  between  ability  to  think  and 
ability  to  remember,  with  special  reference  to  United  States 
history."  School  and  Society,  Vol.  5.  (April)  1917. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION  ^77 

The  following  questions  are  taken  from  Buckingham  *s 
study. 

HISTORY:     THOUGHT  QUESTIONS:     SERIES  A 
Read  each  quotation  and  then  answer  the  ques-. 
tion  below  it. 

"We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to 
form  a  more  perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure 
domestic  tranquillity  ..." 

Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  words  "in  order 
to  form  a  more  perfect  union. " 

"In  1790,  ninety  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  lived  on  farms.  At  the  present  time  only  thirty 
per  cent  of  the  people  live  in  the  country." 

How  can  you  account  for  the  change  suggested 
by  these  facts? 

HISTORY  :     INFORMATION   (Memory) :     SERIES  A 

1.  Who  were  the  Copperheads? 

2.  Who  discovered  the  Mississippi  River? 

3.  What  event  started  the  colonization  of  Colo- 
rado? 

4.  Give  the  principal  reason  advanced  by  ttye 
French  for  claiming  the  Mississippi  Valley 
in  1754. 

Acting  upon  a  suggestion  in  Buckingham's  investiga- 
tion, Mendenhall1  made  a  study  in  which  he  attempted 
to  find  the  relationship  that  exists  between  knowing 
something  about  a  subject  when  a  minimum  time  is 
allowed  for  preparing  the  report,  and  knowing  much, 
more  about  the  same  subject  when  a  maximum  time  is. 

1Mendenhall,  W.  L*  "Relative  values  of  short  and  long-  tests." 
(An  unpublished  study  prepared  at  Des  Moines  University  in  1! 


178  SILENT  READING 

allowed.  He  assigned  two  chapters  dealing  with  the 
problem  of  discipline  to  seventy-one  freshmen  and  soph- 
omore students  in  a  normal-training  class.  The  follow- 
ing day  he  gave  the  two  following  questions  as  sub- 
'jects  for  a  written  quiz. 

1.  Name  five  causes  of  bad  discipline. 

2.  Name  five  remedies  for  bad  discipline. 

He  allowed  only  three  minutes  for  answering  both 
questions.  Following  that  the  students  were  told  to 
use  fifty  minutes  for  preparing  a  written  discussion  of 
the  causes  and  remedies  which  they  had  named  during 
the  three-minute  test.  Every  student  but  one  could 
discuss  the  causes  he  had  named.  The  discussions 
ranged  from  fair  to  excellent.  Those  who  could  name 
the  most  causes  in  the  shorter  period  could  explain 
the  most  in  the  longer  period.  The  data  obtained  by 
Mendenhall  lead  one  to  conclude  that  the  short  mem- 
ory test  based  on  factual  material  is  a  fairly  reliable 
measure  of  a  pupil's  ability. 

The  true-false  test.  This  test  is  now  coming  into 
favor  among  teachers.  The  method  used  in  some  of 
the  standardized  measurements  is  applied  to  the  teacher- 
made  or  informal  test.  The  following  account  of  one 
of  these  tests  shows  its  nature. 

The  teacher  asked  a  sixth-grade  geography  class  to 
read  an  assignment  on  New  England.  She  then  ex- 
plained that  she  would  read  a  list  of  twenty  statements 
based  on  the  assignment,  and  that  of  those  statements 
some  were  true,  others  false.  If  the  pupil  considered 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION 


179 


a  statement  true  he  was  to  make  a  plus  sign,  if  he 
thought  it  false  he  was  to  make  a  minus  sign.  The 
teacher  read  the  statements  at  the  rate  of  one  every 
thirty  seconds. 

1.  The  New  England  States  comprise  an  area 
greater  than  that  of  the  Southern  States. 

2.  Montpelier  is  the  capital  of  Maine. 

3.  Most  of  the  rivers  flow  north  and  east. 

4.  Fishing  is  an  important  industry. 

5.  The  largest  state  is  Massachusetts. 

6.  New  England  has  many  thriving  cities. 

7.  The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  rough  and 
broken. 

8.  Harvard  University  is  located  in  New  Haven. 

9.  The  people  of  New  England  are  noted  for 
their  intelligence,  enterprise,  and  industry. 

10.  Champlain  is  the  largest  river. 

11.  The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  wool,  iron,  coal, 
and  articles  of  food. 

12.  Boston,    the    metropolis,    has    an    excellent 
harbor. 

13.  Little  attention  is  paid  to  lumbering  and  ship- 
building. 

14.  Cotton,    woolen    goods,    and    machinery    are 
among  the  chief  manufactured  articles. 

15.  The  White  Mountains  are  in  Vermont. 

16.  Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  Fall  River  are  noted 
for  cotton  manufacturing. 

17.  Newport,    on    the    Connecticut    River,    has    a 
United  States  arsenal  where  rifles  and  other 
arms  are  made. 

18.  There    are   six   states   in   the   New  England 

group. 


180  SILENT  READING 

19.  The  leading  exports  are  lumber,  ice,  granite, 
marble,  and  all  kinds  of  manufactured  goods. 

20.  New  England  is  well  fitted  for  manufacturing, 
on  account  of  the  great  abundance  of  water 
power  afforded  by  its  rapid  streams. 

This  test  was  given,  scored,  and  the  results  recorded 
in  approximately  fifteen  minutes.  Each  pupil's  final 
score  consisted  of  the  number  of  correct  answers  minus 
the  number  of  wrong  ones.  A  pupil  who  answered 
eighteen  questions  correctly  and  two  incorrectly  scored 
16  points  or  80  per  cent. 

The  method  of  scoring.  The  following  explanation 
should  make  clear  why  a  pupil's  score  is  expressed  in 
terms  of  the  number  of  correct  answers  minus  the  num- 
ber of  incorrect.  Let  us  imagine  a  pupil  with  no  knowl- 
edge of  New  England  whatever.  Were  he  to  take  the 
test  outlined  above,  answering  every  question  in  some 
way,  he  would,  according  to  the  theory  of  chance,  an- 
swer ten  questions  correctly,  ten  incorrectly.  The 
chances  of  his  guessing  right  and  wrong  answers  are 
equal.  According  to  the  method  of  computation  used, 
such  a  pupil's  score  on  this  test  would  be  10  — 10  =  0. 
Such  a  score  properly  represents  that  pupil's  complete 
lack  of  knowledge.  Suppose,  now,  that  the  pupil  knows 
the  correct  answers  to  ten  of  the  questions,  but  that 
he  guesses  the  answers  to  the  other  ten.  Of  the  latter, 
according  to  the  theory  of  chance,  he  would  answer 
five  correctly  and  five  incorrectly.  Even  though  his 
actual  knowledge  enables  him  to  answer  only  ten  ques- 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION 


181 


tions  correctly,  he  will  have  fifteen  correct  answers  and 
five  incorrect.  The  method  of  computing  his  score 
reveals  his  actual  knowledge :  15  —  5  =  10.  The  pupil 
who  answers  every  question  correctly  has  a  score  of 
20  because  according  to  this  method  of  computation 
20  —  0  =  20. 

It  is  difficult  for  some  to  believe  that  such  a  test 
does  other  than  give  the  highest  score  to  the  luckiest 
guesser.  They  look  suspiciously  upon  this  thing  called 
"chance."  Regarding  this  McCall  says: 

Being  in  a  position  which  offered  excellent  oppor- 
tunity, namely,  treasurer  of  a  Sunday  school,  we  once 
tossed  pennies  for  heads  or  tails  fifty  thousand  times. 
The  results  came  out  25,000  heads  and  24,999  tails. 
Had  there  not  been  a  miscount  somewhere,  the  two 
would  doubtless  have  come  out  exactly  even.  We  had 
occasion  to  watch  two  summer-school  teachers  engage 
in  that  soul-absorbing,  nerve-racking  game  of  chance 
called  " matching  pennies."  Each  began  the  summer 
with  a  special  bag  of  one  hundred  pennies.  They 
matched  for  several  minutes  daily.  The  last  we  heard 
they  were  still  matching  pennies  and  chance  had  pre- 
vented either  from  getting  complete  possession  of  the 
other's  one  hundred  pennies.  Chance  is  fatally  exact 
when  the  pennies  or  the  statements  ^  in  ^the  ^  test  are 
numerous.  The  opportunities  for  injustice  in  scores 
multiply  in  proportion  as  the  number  of  statements  is 
reduced.  Hence  there  should  be  as  many ^  statements 
in  the  test  as  practical  limitations  will  permit.1 

Teacher-made  true-false  tests.  The  following  sug- 
gestions may  help  teachers  who  wish  to  use  the  tnie- 

iMcCall  W  A.  "A  new  kind  of  school  examination."  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  1.  (January)  1920. 


182  SILENT  READING 

false  test  either  as  a  check  upon  the  reading  ability 
of  the  pupils  over  some  definite  assignment  or  for  a 
formal  examination  on  a  certain  piece  of  work.  Con- 
struct the  test  so  that  it  will  contain  approximately 
the  same  number  of  true  and  false  statements.  Vary 
from  this  occasionally  lest  some  clever  pupil  count  back 
to  see  how  many  more  true  statements  have  been  marked 
than  false.  Let  chance  (the  tossing  of  a  penny)  deter- 
mine how  many  statements  shall  be  true  and  how  many 
false,  and  in  what  order  the  true  and  the  false  shall 
come.  Unless  one  resorts  to  some  such  device,  one's 
arrangement  each  time  is  likely  to  be  practically  the 
same.  See  that  the  statements  are  free  from  ambiguity. 
Do  not  ordinarily  make  leading  statements  which  will 
suggest  wrong  answers.  The  true-false  test  may  not 
be  as  diagnostic  as  the  conventional  long  essay  type. 
As  it  does  not  show  how  the  pupil's  thinking  process 
went  astray  on  a  problem,  it  is  well  to  supplement  it 
with  a  more  detailed  test. 

Gates'  experiment.1  Gates  has  recently  determined 
the  reliability  of  the  true-false  tests  by  extensive  experi- 
menting. He  compared  the  scores  made  by  students 
who  took  these  tests  with  those  made  by  the  same  stu- 
dents when  they  took  three  other  types  of  test,  (1)  a 
one-hour  and  two-hour  mid-term  and  final  written  ex- 
amination, (2)  written  home  work  consisting  of  essays 
on  special  topics,  (3)  the  Army  Alpha  Test  or  the 
Thorndike  Intelligence  Test.  He  made  comparisons  not 

'Gates.  Arthur  I.  "Reliability  of  the  true-false  test."  Journal 
of  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  12.  (June)  1921. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION  133 

once  but  often.  He  found  that  when  a  number  of 
true-false  tests  were  given  the  student's  rank  re- 
mained practically  the  same  throughout  the  series. 
This  was  not  true  of  the  ranks  determined  by  the 
written  examinations.  He  also  found  that  scores  made 
by  students  who  took  a  series  of  true-false  tests 
showed  less  variation  than  when  they  took  a  series  of 
any  other  kind  of  tests. 

Advantages  of  the  true-false  test.  Those  who  have 
given  these  tests,  and  those  who  have  taken  them,  agree 
that  their  use  saves  teachers  much  time.  They  dispense 
with  the  task  of  correction,  because  each  pupil  scores 
his  own  paper.  This  self-correction  feature  also  makes 
the  test  a  valuable  instructional  device.  True-false  tests 
enable  teachers  to  develop  standards  of  achievement 
by  means  of  which  the  work  of  one  class  may  be  com- 
pared with  that  of  another.  They  also  enable  one  to 
test  over  a  field  of  material  wider  than  one  can 
cover  when  the  conventional  examinations  are  used. 
They  furnish  more  refined  units  of  measurement  than 
the  usual  type  of  examination  gives,  because  the  distri- 
bution is  wider.  Students  report  that  these  tests  re- 
quire them  to  use  more  effective  methods  of  study,  to 
understand  and  apply  facts,  not  merely  to  commit  to 
memory  for  purposes  of  later  reproduction.  It  has  been 
determined  by  actual  count  that  at  least  90  per  cent 
of  students  prefer  this  type  of  test,  because  it  gives 
them  the  results  of  their  examination  as  soon  as  the 
test  is  concluded  and  so  relieves  them  of  the  suspense 


184  SILENT  READING 

caused  by  waiting  for  papers  to  be  marked.  Students 
say  that  after  the  initial  adjustment  they  usually  feel 
less  nervous  during  the  examination,  and  that  the  true- 
false  test  is  less  exhausting  because  it  causes  little  if 
any  eyestrain  and  no  worry  about  one's  ability  to  com- 
plete the  examination  within  the  prescribed  time  limit. 
In  addition  to  its  value  as  a  test,  the  true-false  exam- 
ination is  an  excellent  teaching  instrument.  The  im- 
mediate correction  of  answers  clears  up  haziness,  mis- 
understanding, and  ignorance  of  facts,  and  at  the  same 
time  clearly  shows  principles. 

SUMMARY 

1.  Careful  testing  to  determine  pupils'  ability  to  compre- 
hend should  be  a  part  of  educational  practice. 

2.  By  means  of  tests,  pupils  and  teachers  are  enabled  to 
determine  with  what  thoroughness  the  reading  is  done. 

3.  Tests    aid    in    the    formation    of    purposeful    reading 
habits. 

4.  Well-organized,  informational  material  such  as  is  found 
in    textbooks    of    geography,    history,    hygiene,    nature 
study,  and  arithmetic  is  suitable  for  testing  purpose*. 

•  5.  Poetry  and  other  literature  adapted  for  appreciative 
reading  should  not  be  used  as  a  basis  for  thorough 
comprehension  tests. 

6.  Brevity  and  directness  should  characterize  the  teacher- 
made  test.  .The  methods  employed  in  the  making  of 
the  standardized  tests  may  be  profitably  followed. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Brooks,  S.  S.  Improving  Schools  by  Standardized  Tests. 
Houghton  Mifllin  Company,  Boston,  1922. 

Gray,  W.  S.  "Value  of  informal  tests  of  reading  accom- 
plishment" Journal  of  Educational  Research,  VoL  1, 
(February)  1920. 


MEASURING  COMPREHENSION  135 

Kallom,  A.  W.  "Reproduction  as  a  measure  of  reading 
ability."  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  VoL  1,  (May) 
1920. 

Knight,  F.  B.  "Data  on  the  true-false  tests  as  a  device 
for  college  examination."  Journal  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology, Vol.  13,  (February)  1922. 

Lymari,  R.  L.  "The  teaching  of  assimilative  reading  in  the 
junior  high  school."  School  Review,  Vol.  27,  (October) 
1921. 

Monroe,  W.  S,  Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching.  (Chap- 
ters 2  and  3.)  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1918. 

Pressey,  L.  C.  and  S.  L.  "A  critical  study  of  the  concept 
of  silent-reading  ability."  Journal  of  Educational  Psy- 
chology, Vol.  12,  (January)  1921. 

Terman,  Dixon,  Sutherland,  Franzen,  Tupper,  and  Fernald. 
Intelligence  Tests  and  School  Reorganization.  World 
Book  Company,  Yonkers,  New  York,  1922. 


CHAPTER  X 
MATERIAL   FOR   SILENT-READING    PURPOSES 

Various  kinds  of  material  necessary.  If  we  are  to 
develop  the  children's  silent-reading  ability  to  the  ut- 
most, we  must  give  them  much  practice  in  reading  vari- 
ous kinds  of  material.  We  must  no  longer  believe  that 
one  book  contains  all  that  a  child  should  read  in  a 
year.  We  must  give  him  access  to  an  abundance  of 
material  which  is  within  the  range  of  his  interests  and 
comprehension.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  discuss  the 
essentials  of  satisfactory  reading  material  and  suggest 
where  the  teacher  may  obtain  it. 

Investigations  have  proven  that  children  need  differ- 
ent kinds  of  reading  material  if  they  are  to  obtain 
the  best  results  from  their  work  in  reading,  because 
the  ability  to  assimilate  what  one  reads  depends  to  a 
large  extent  on  the  nature  of  the  subject-matter.  There 
are  as  many  different  silent-reading  abilities  as  there 
are  different  kinds  of  reading  material. 

Presseys*  experiment.1     The  Presseys  have  shown 
by  experiment  that  there  is  no  general  silent-reading- 
ability,  that  one  who  reads  one  kind  of  material  well 

VPressey,  L.  O.  and  S.  L.  "A  critical  study  of  the  concept 
of  silent-reading  ability."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
Vol.  12,  (January)  1921. 

186 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL  jgy 

may  read  another  kind  poorly,  and  that  the  ability 
to  read  well  silently  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
nature  of  the  passage  read.  The  material  which  they 
used  in  an  experiment  conducted  with  112  seventh-grade 
pupils  consisted  of  four  reading  scales,  each  composed 
of  a  particular  kind  of  reading  material.  For  the  most 
part  the  exercises  were  taken  from  the  Monroe  Reading 
Scale  and  from  the  Illinois  Examination.  One  scale 
consisted  entirely  of  poetry,  another  of  passages  of  scien- 
tific subject-matter,  and  the  other  two  were  composed 
of  selections  taken  from  stories  and  general  reading 
matter.  The  latter  are  known  in  this  experiment  as 
" General  I"  and  " General  II."  The  coefficients  of 
correlation1  of  all  possible  combinations  based  on  the 
four  scales  were  as  follows : 

COEFFICIENT 

OF 
SCALES  CORRELATION 

Poetry  with  General  1 38 

General  I  with  General  II 85 

General  II  with  Poetry 31 

General  I  with  Scientific 35 

General  II  with  Scientific 49 

Scientific  with  Poetry 56 

The  following  specimens  show  the  kind  of  material 
included  in  each  of  the  four  scales  used  in  this  experi- 
ment. 

»A  perfect  correlation  (relationship)  between  the  scores  made 
when  reading-  any  two  types  of  reading:  material  is  indicated 
by  a  score  of  1.00.  If,  when  reading  one  of  the  selections  in- 
cluded in  this  experiment,  for  example,  "Scientific."  the  rank 
of  the  pupils  had  been  1,  2.  3,  etc.,  and  if  the  rank  had  been 
the  same  when  they  read  another  selection,  for  example.  Poetry, 
then  the  correlation  between  the  two  types  would  have  been 
perfect,  and  consequently  represented  by  a  score  of  1.00. 


188  SILENT  READING 

Poetry 

Oh  suns,  and  skies,  and  clouds  of  June, 
And  flowers  of  June  together, 
You   cannot   rival   for  one  hour 
October's  bright  blue  weather. 

Which  month  does  the  stanza  say  is  the  most 
pleasant? 
April      September      May      June      October 

General  I 

The  caravan,  stretched  out  upon  the  desert,  was  very 
picturesque;  in  motion,  however,  it  was  like  a  lazy 
serpent  By  and  by,  its  stubborn  dragging  became 
intolerably  irksome  to  Balthasar,  patient  as  he  was. 

Place  a  line  under  the  word  which  tells  in  what 
respect  the  caravan  resembled  a  serpent, 
temper         color        length         motion         size 

General  II 

It  was  the  garden-land  of  Antioch.  Even  the  hedges, 
besides  the  lure  of  the  shade,  offered  passers-by  sweet 
promises  of  wine  and  clusters  of  purple  grapes.  Over 
melon  patches  and  through  apricot  and  fig  groves  and 
groves  of  oranges  and  limes,  the  whitewashed  houses 
of  the  farmers  were  seen. 

What  kind  of  land  was  this?    Draw  a  line  under 
the  correct  answer, 
barren     hilly     productive     infertile     desert 

Scientific 

The  tighter  the  wire  is  stretched,  the  higher  will 
be  the  tone  produced  when  the  wire  is  struck.  Five 
wires  were  stretched  with  weights  on  the  ends  of 
them.  One  weight  is  100  pounds,  one  is  75  pounds, 
one  is  25  pounds,  one  is  20  pounds,  and  one  is  15 
pounds. 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL 

Underline  the  number  of  pounds  in  the  weight 
which  will  cause  the  highest  tone. 

100  75  25  20  15 

Zirbes'  report.  This  investigator  says:  "There  are 
many  silent-reading  abilities  ;  training  to  be  economical 
must  be  special.  Psychological  analyses  of  the  abilities 
involved  in  the  reading  curriculum  must  be  made  to 
the  end  that  the  technique  employed,  and  practice  upon 
desirable  content,  may  be  placed  upon  a  scientific  basis.1 

Wilson's  experiment.2  Shortly  after  the  above  quo- 
tation appeared,  Estaline  Wilson  reported  an  elaborate 
experiment  which  confirms  Zirbes'  contention.  In  a 
later  study,  mentioned  in  Chapter  XV,  she  has  defi- 
nitely pointed  out  the  particular  method  to  be  employed 
in  teaching  pupils  to  read  arithmetic  problems  more 
effectively. 

The  experiment  reported  below  included  pupils  from 
grades  five  to  eleven.  Six  different  types  of  material 
were  used  —  arithmetic,  civics,  grammar,  geography, 
poetry,  and  narrative.  The  method  employed,  the  data 
gathered,  and  the  conclusions  drawn  in  this  experiment 
are  suggestive  enough  to  warrant  the  following  rather 
detailed  report. 

Teachers  find  that  pupils  who  read  selections  from 
their  readers  very  well  do  not  show  the  same  ability 
when  they  try  to  read  their  textbooks  of  geography 


,  Z^aura.  "What  are  the  situations  in  which  reading: 
functions?"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  12,  (March) 
1921. 

2Wilsoii,   Estaline.     "Specific   teaching  of   silent  reading:."     Ele- 
mentary  School  Journal,   Vol.    22.    (October)    1921. 


190  SILENT  READING 

and  arithmetic.  The  variation  appears  in  the  scores 
made  by  pupils  measured  by  different  standard  read- 
ing tests.  The  explanation  which  suggests  itself  for 
these  facts  is  that  reading  abilities  vary  according  to 
the  types  of  material  with  which  the  pupil  deals.  Abil- 
ity to  read  literary  selections  seems  to  differ  from  ability 
understandingly  to  read  problems  in  arithmetic;  ability 
to  read  geography  differs  from  ability  to  read  poetry. 

In  order  to  test  the  validity  of  the  explanation  sug- 
gested, a  number  of  Cincinnati  teachers  gave  their  pupils 
a  series  of  tests  which  included  different  kinds  of  ma- 
terial—  arithmetic,  geography,  civics,  grammar,  narra- 
tion, and  poetry.  In  so  far  as  possible  this  material 
was  selected  from  books  designed  for  use  in  the  same 
grade.  No  test  contained  vocabulary  difficulties.  The 
material,  followed  by  questions,  was  printed  on  single 
sheets  with  questions  below.  The  questions  were  such 
as  the  average  teacher  would  ask  to  test  the  compre- 
hension of  similar  reading  material  in  an  ordinary  class 
assignment.  The  answers  to  some  merely  required  the 
selection  of  facts;  other  answers  required  judgment. 
Instructions  were  printed  at  the  top  of  each  test.  The 
pupils  were  told  what  the  material  contained.  "These 
paragraphs  tell  you  how  hair  nets  are  made. "  f  "These 
problems  tell  the  story  of  a  family  who  took  an  auto- 
mobile trip."  "You  may  read  as  often  as  necessary 
to  answer  the  questions.  Work  as  rapidly  as  you  can." 

The  teacher  made  no  attempt  to  control  the  time, 
as  the  only  element  to  be  measured  was  the  pupils' 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL 


191 


ability  to  comprehend  various  kinds  of  subject-matter* 
The  tests  were  given  at  the  same  period  on  successive 
days;  in  both  instances  conditions  were  as  nearly  uni- 
form as  possible.  The  following  specimens  show  the 
types  of  material  used. 

TEST    IN    BEADING    ARITHMETIC    MATERIAL 

The  following  problems  tell  the  story  of  a  family 
that  took  an  automobile  trip.  You  are  to  read  the 
problems  and  answer  the  questions  printed  below,  but 
you  are  not  to  work  any  of  the  problems.  You  may 
read  them  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  answer  the 
questions.  Work  as  rapidly  as  you  can,  and  number 
your  answers  just  as  the  questions  are  numbered. 

1.  The  Brown  family  took  a  two  week's  trip  in  their 
automobile.     They  went  975.6  miles  in  all.    They 
did  not  ride  on  Sundays.     How  far  did  they  go 
per  day  on  the  days  that  they  did  ride? 

2.  It  cost  $21.32  for  gasoline,  $2.80  for  oil,  and  $4.75 
for  repairs.     Mr.  Brown  estimates  the  wear  and 
tear  on  automobile  and  tires  at  3*4  cents  per  mile. 
Using  this   estimate,  what  was  the  total  cost  of 
running  the  car  on  the  trip? 

3.  They  spent  twelve  nights  and  had  twelve  break- 
fasts at  farm  houses  or  small  hotels.    Twice  they 
paid  $1.75  for  lodging  and  breakfast  for  the  fam- 
ily.     Five    times    they    paid    $2.00.      Four    times 
they   paid    $2.50.     Once   they   paid    $3.50.     What 
was  the  total  cost  for  lodging  and  breakfast? 

4.  They  bought  food  at  stores  and  bakeries  for  their 
noon  and  evening  meals,  spending  $17.57  in  all  for 
the   fourteen   days,      (a)      How   much    did   their 
noon  and  evening  meals  cost  per  day?    (6)    They 
expected  to  spend  $1.40  per  day.    How  much  less 
did  they  spend  per  day  than  they  expected? 

Questions 

1.    How  many  days  were  the  Brown  family  using  their 
automobile  while  on  their  trip? 


192  SILENT  READING 

2.  What   different  things  did  Mr.  Brown  consider  in 

figuring  the  cost  of  running  the  car? 

3.  In  what  different  places  did  they  get  something  to 

eat? 

4.  For  how  many  days  did   they  need  to  buy  food? 

5.  How  many  different  prices  are  given  as  costs   of 

breakfast  and  lodging? 

6.  Why  could  you  not  find  what  the  cost  was  for  each 

member  of  the  Brown  family? 


TEST  IN    BEADING   NARRATIVE   MATERIAL 

The  following  story  tells  you  about  an  automobile 
accident  You  may  read  it  as  often  as  is  necessary 
to  answer  the  questions.  Work  as  rapidly  as  possible 
and  number  your  answers  as  the  questions  are  num- 
bered. 

Not  long  ago  some  of  the  people  in  our  neighborhood 
had  a  picnic  over  on  Deer  Creek.  Soon  after  we  ar- 
rived at  the  picnic  grounds  it  was  discovered  that'some- 
one  had  forgotten  the  watermelons,  and  Nick  Lathrop 
at  once  volunteered  to  go  back  to  town  after  them; 
he  is  a  good  fellow  and  no  one  can  help  liking  him. 
80  away  be  went,  and  the  last  we  saw  of  him  he 
was  going  BO  fast  everybody  thought  he  would  be  back 
in  ten  minutes. 

The  women  began  getting  supper  ready,  and  when 
Nick  didn't  come  back  in  half  an  hour  we  all  began 
worrying,  particularly  his  wife,  who  was  always  ex- 
pecting something  to  happen.  Eddie  Batty  and  Walt 
Bell  went  out  to  see  what  the  trouble  was. 

This  is  what  had  happened:  Nick  was  rushing  along 
after  the  watermelons,  and  hurrying,  as  supper  was 
late  anyway.  Suddenly,  ahead  of  him,  in  the  dark, 
loomed  up  a  red  light  Nothing  makes  Nick  Lathrop 
so  impatient  as  a  car  ahead  of  him,  and  when  he  saw 
the  red  light  he  thought  it  was  the  tail  ligbt  of  a 
car,  and  made  a  dash  to  go  around  it  The  red  light 
turned  out  to  be  a  lantern  to  give  warning  that  a 
bridge  was  out  Nick  went  into  the  creek  *t  sixty 
miles  an  hour,  and  when  Eddie  Batty  and  Walt  Bell 
brought  him  back  he  was  a  sight 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL 


193 


Questions 

1.  Where  were  these  people  when  this  story  happened? 

2.  What  was   Nick  going  after? 

3.  How  long  did  the  crowd  think  it  would  take  Nick 

to  go  to  town  and  back? 

4.  Why  was  his  wife  worried? 

5.  What  bad  automobile  habit  did  Nick  Lathrop  have? 

6.  What  fooled  him? 

7.  Do  you  think  he  was  lucky  or  unlucky? 

8.  Give  the  reason  for  your  answer  to  the  last  question. 

Results  of  Wilson's  test.  The  scores  shown  below 
were  made  by  the  pupils  of  two  schools.  They  are 
representative  of  the  results  obtained  on  five  types  of 
reading  material. 

ARITHMETIC  GRAMMAR  GEOGRAPHY  POETRY  NARRATIVE 
WI.NTON  PLACE 

Grade  V 

Number  tested         43  43  43 

Class  median  66§  100  80 

Range  0-100      66§-100      30-100 

NORTH  FAIBMOUNT 

Grade  VII 

Number  tested        28  28  28 

Class  median  75  100  90 

Range  41-91      334-100      50-100 

The  above  figures  show  in  general  the  variation  in 
the  ability  to  comprehend,  due  to  the  change  in  sub- 
ject-matter. The  scores  uniformly  indicate  that  the 
reading  of  arithmetic  was  poor  and  that  the  reading 
of  the  informational  and  narrative  material  was  bet- 
ter. The  greatest  range  of  ability  appears  in  the  scores 
based  on  the  grammar  and  arithmetic  material,  but  there 


43 

43 

66§ 

871 

16§-100 

383-100 

28 

28 

83 

87* 

334-100 

50-100 

194  SILENT  READING 

were  striking  cases  of  variation  in  the  scores  made  by 
certain  pupils  when  reading  other  material. 

Causes  of  variation  in  scores.  The  variation  in 
scores  is  doubtless  due  to  lack  of  definite  training  which 
makes  the  reading  of  arithmetic  as  easy  as  the  read- 
ing of  narrative  material.  Failure  to  answer  the  ques- 
tions based  on  the  arithmetic  material  was  not  due  to 
a  demand  for  calculation  or  arithmetical  reasoning,  be- 
cause the  questions  in  this  test  were  merely  factual. 
The  sixth  question  was  the  only  one  that  required  a 
knowledge  of  an  arithmetical  principle.  As  individuals, 
pupils  answered  this  question  more  often  than  they  an- 
swered others. 

Practice  in  reading  informational  and  narrative  ma- 
terial may  account  for  the  scores  made  on  those  tests. 
Pupils  generally  are  trained  to  read  material  of  this 
kind  and  to  answer  questions  based  on  it.  Even  poetry, 
with  its  obscure  sentence  structure  and  less  familiar 
vocabulary,  presents  fewer  difficulties  than  arithmetic, 
because  modern  textbooks  and  teachers  have  developed 
a  method  of  getting  at  its  meaning. 

The  relative  difficulty  of  different  kinds  of  subject- 
matter  at  once  becomes  a  question.  Obviously  the  vari- 
ous selections  are  not  equally  difficult,  but  this  is  prob- 
ably because  of  the  lack  of  definite  training  in  the  for- 
mation of  reading  habits  It  remains  to  develop  meth- 
ods of  teaching  reading  suitable  to  various  kinds  of 
material,  before  any  conclusive  weighting  of  sentences 
can  be  made. 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL  195 

Types  of  material.  Since  the  aim  of  silent  reading 
is  not  merely  to  make  the  pupils  proficient  in  word 
recognition,  but  also  to  develop  the  ability  to  get  the 
gist  of  an  article  quickly  and  efficiently,  the  exercises 
and  material  must  be  of  such  character  as  to  call  forth 
efforts  that  will  produce  the  desired  results.  The  les- 
son must  be  attractively  written  in  choice  English,  and 
the  subject-matter  must  be  within  the  range  of  chil- 
dren's interests  and  comprehension. 

The  aim  of  any  exercise  largely  determines  the  type 
of  material  that  should  be  used.  For  example,  the  story 
can  be  used  effectively  for  speed  drills,  provided  it  is 
long  enough  to  tax  the  speediest  reader  to  his  utmost 
within  the  time  limit.  The  merit  of  the  story  as  read- 
ing material  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  child  is  anxious 
to  see  how  it  ends,  and  consequently  reads  rapidly; 
interest  in  the  tale  insures  comprehension. 

Highly  factual,  well-organized  subject-matter  is  ex- 
cellent for  drill  in  comprehension  and  organization.  Ex- 
position and  detailed  description  are  also  satisfactory. 
Directions  for  class  projects  are  very  valuable,  because 
the  pupil  must  read  purposefully  and  understandinsrly 
in  order  to  participate  in  the  project.  Beading  material 
for  drill  purposes  should  seldom  be  presented  in  sum- 
mary form,  because  it  deprives  the  pupils  of  excellent 
practice  in  organizing  and  summarizing  material. 

Sources  of  material.  As  has  been  said,  no  one  tvpe 
of  material  is  adequate  for  teaching  silent  reading.  The 
greater  the  supply  of  kinds  of  subject-matter,  the  bet- 


196  SILENT  READING 

ter  it  is  for  both  teacher  and  pupil.  There  are  at  least 
four  reliable  sources  of  reading  material  which  are  avail- 
able to  every  teacher:  The  various  school  readers,  text- 
books, library  books,  pamphlets  or  bulletins.  The  re- 
spective merits  of  these  are  discussed  on  the  following 
pages. 

The  school  reader.  Unfortunately  too  many  teach- 
ers use  only  one  book  —  the  regular  school  reader.  Much 
of  the  content  of  the  readers  is  good,  but  no  one  book 
contains  sufficient  material  for  a  year's  work.  The  class 
reader  is  not  made  for  silent-reading  purposes  alone, 
but  for  oral  reading  as  well.  The  subject-matter  of 
readers  is  chiefly  of  value  in  developing  a  love  for  read' 
ing  and  for  purposes  of  speed  exercises.  If  pupils  are 
given  a  time  limit  in  which  to  read  an  interesting 
story,  their  desire  to  finish  it  will  cause  rapid  reading. 
Much  practice  of  this  sort  will  habituate  long,  rhyth- 
mical eye-sweeps,  few  regressive  movements,  and  fixa- 
tion-points of  short  duration,  thus  aiding  in  rapid  read- 
ing. Stories  should  be  read  again  and  again,  because 
wider  perception-units  are  possible  when  familiar  ma- 
terial is  used.  Knowing  the  content,  the  pupils  are 
able  to  guess  ahead  or  read  "out  of  the  tail  of  the 
eye." 

One  danger  of  using  the  reader  for  silent  reading  is 
that  overzealous  teachers  tend  to  believe  that  they  must 
thoroughly  test  the  pupils'  comprehension  of  every 
story  and  poem.  Teachers  must  remember  that  the  ma- 
terial in  the  ordinary  reader  is  largely  narrative  prose 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL  197 

and  poetry,  which  was  selected  primarily  to  cultivate 
appreciation.  Generally,  it  needs  no  detailed  analysis. 
The  fact  that  children  read  it  and  enjoy  it  is  assurance 
that  they  comprehend  it. 

For  example,  the  pupils  may  be  asked  to  read  the 
story,  "The  Boy  Who  Cried  'Wolf ',"  so  that  they  can 
dramatize  it  for  another  group.  This  stimulates  the 
reading  and  necessitates  their  knowing  that  the  boy 
was  herding  sheep  in  a  lonely  spot  near  the  home  of 
wild  animals,  that  he  became  tired  and  thought  he  would 
have  some  fun,  and  so  played  a  trick  on  the  men  work- 
ing in  the  field.  It  is  little  short  of  criminal,  however, 
to  test  the  pupil's  understanding  of  it  by  asking  such 
questions  as:  What  did  the  boy  do?  Where  did  he 
tend  the  sheep?  What  is  a  forest?  Was  it  a  dark 
forest?  How  many  men  worked  in  the  field?  Where 
was  the  field? 

The  teacher  should,  however,  ask  some  questions  even 
about  this  story.  They  need  not  be  detailed  as  to  time, 
place,  manner,  etc.,  but  they  should  be  such  as  will  test 
the  pupil's  interpretation  of  the  entire  selection.  The 
aim  is  to  help  pupils  acquire  the  habit  of  judging  and 
evaluating  when  they  read.  Questions  that  require  in- 
terpretation and  furnish  a  basis  for  discussion  help 
children  to  'do  that.  A  teacher  is  justified  in  asking 
the  following  question  about  the  above-mentioned  story: 
"Do  yon  feel  sorry  for  the  boy?  Why?' 
the  children's  answer  is  negative  or  positive,  there 
still  room  for  much  argument.  Out  of  the  discussion 


198  SILENT  HEADING 

will  come  a  true  interpretation  of  the  story.  Stories 
should  be  read  in  order  to  give  children  something  to 
appreciate.  To  subject  a  child  to  a  detailed  question- 
ing, either  before  or  after  he  has  read  the  story,  robs 
him  of  much  of  the  joy  of  it  and  defeats  the  aim  of 
reading. 

Who  of  us  cannot  recall  an  overconscientious  teacher 
who  practically  destroyed  the  charm  of  a  fascinating 
tale  by  attempting  to  discover  whether  or  not  we  under- 
stood the  meaning  of  every  word,  and  whether  we  were 
getting  the  full  connotation  from  each  sentence?  Such 
interesting  material  is  of  great  value,  but  it  should  not 
be  misused. 

Library  books.  The  library  is  a  valuable  source 
of  supply  for  material  for  silent  reading;  students 
should  be  urged  to  use  it  freely.  Story-books,  fairy 
tales,  and  myths  contain  material  that  always  appeals 
to  pupils.  Allowing  students  to  read  stories  to  drama- 
tize or  act  in  pantomime  before  the  rest  of  the  class 
assures  comprehension ;  their  desire  to  find  out  how  the 
story  ends  conduces  to  rapid  reading.  Lists  of  books 
suitable  for  such  work  are  given  in  the  Appendix  (pages 
357-381). 

Textbooks.  A  special  series  of  readers  to  be  used 
for  silent  reading  is  unnecessary.  Silent  reading  can 
be  based  on  any  good  readers;  the  subject-matter  in 
the  regular  textbooks  of  geography,  history,  and  hygiene 
furnishes  excellent  material,  which  is  suitable  for  com- 
prehension exercises  because  it  is  factual,  detailed,  and 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL  199 

usually  well  organized.  Various  specimen  lessons  show- 
ing how  to  use  such  material  are  presented  in  the  fol- 
lowing chapters. 

The  use  of  geography  and  history  texts  for  silent 
reading  answers  the  objection  of  the  teacher  who  claims 
that  her  already  overcrowded  schedule  allows  no  time 
for  silent  reading  as  such.  Naturally,  she  feels  that  with 
so  many  classes  it  is  impossible  to  allow  each  grade  even 
ten  minutes  per  day  for  drill  in  silent  reading  or  meth- 
ods of  study.  However,  since  silent-reading  exercises 
may  be  conducted  in  conjunction  with  the  lesson  in  geog- 
raphy, history,  or  hygiene,  the  time  difficulty  is  removed. 

Very  effective  drill  in  speed  and  comprehension  is 
obtained  by  using  the  last  five  or  ten  minutes  of  the 
recitation  period  to  have  pupils  read  the  text  assign- 

• 

ment  under  time  pressure,  then  subjecting  them  to  a 
test  on  the  leading  points.  The  few  minutes  thus  spent 
help  to  form  habits  of  rapid  and  purposeful  reading. 
The  test  also  gives  pupils  a  start  on  the  mastery  of 
the  next,  day's  assignment,  because  it  indicates  what 
important  point  they  failed  to  grasp  during  their  first 
rapid  reading. 

Pamphlets.  Unfortunately,  many  libraries  contain 
but  few  books,  and  those  poor  ones.  This  compels  the 
teacher  to  look  elsewhere  for  material  to  use  in  silent- 
reading  classes.  Her  problem  is  to  obtain  vital,  well- 
written  reading  matter  that  is  suitable  for  the  various 
grades,  at  minimum  cost  and  in  quantities  that  will 
en-able  her  to  supply  an  entire  class. 


200  SILENT  READING 

The  situation  is  not  so  discouraging,  however,  as  it 
at  first  seems.  It  is  generaly  known  that  pupils  are 
intensely  interested  in  all  questions  which  are  really 
problems  of  the  home,  school,  community,  or  state.  An 
abundance  of  material  dealing  with  all  sorts  of  ques- 
tions pertaining  to  home-making,  health,  civics,  agri- 
culture, entomology,  etc.,  is  available  in  pamphlet  form. 
Those  can  generally  be  obtained  free  of  cost  or  for  a 
small  charge.  Subjects  which  should  be  discussed  in 
all  grades  are  treated  in  these  pamphlets.  One  may 
obtain  articles  from  various  sources  on  the  fly  menace, 
the  treatment  of  contagious  diseases,  the  care  of  the 
teeth,  the  value  of  fresh  air,  the  care  of  milk,  the  dis- 
posal of  garbage,  the  method  of  growing  various  crops, 
their  value,  soils,  gardens,  pests,  and  on  many  other 
subjects.  Generally  the  content  is  presented  in  the  form 
of  problems.  It  abounds  in  detail  and  contains  many 
descriptive  passages  which  make  it  splendid  material 
for  training  in  comprehension  and  organization. 

Few  of  these  pamphlets  can  be  used  in  the  begin- 
ning grades,  but  they  afford  factual  material  for  the 
teacher  who  cares  to  write  selections  suitable  for  pri- 
mary pupils.  An  article  on  the  house  fly,  well  written 
in  a  popular  style,  but  which  could  not  be  profitably 
used  in  grades  below  the  third  nevertheless  contains  in- 
formation about  the  fly  as  a  carrier  of  disease  and  as 
a  factor  in  infant  mortality  which  is  readily  understood 
by  a  six-year-old  pupil.  By  adapting  the  content  to 
the  class,  and  printing  these  exercises  on  the  blackboard 


SILENT-READING  MATERIAL  201 

or  on  tag  board,  the  teacher  obtains  source  material 
for  twenty  or  more  live  and  worth-while  reading  lessons. 
The  Appendix  (pages  357-381)  contains  lists  of 
pamphlets,  some  of  which  may  well  be  studied  in  the 
classroom.  Practically  all  are  supplied  free  of  cost. 
If  the  company  or  government  department  which  pub- 
lishes the  material  listed  is  unwilling  to  supply  dupli- 
cate copies,  the  teacher  may  have  each  pupil  send  for 
his  own.  However,  if  the  teacher  explains  the  use  that 
she  expects  to  make  of  the  material,  her  request  for 
duplicate  copies  will  usually  be  granted. 

SUMMARY 

1.  If   pupils   are   to   become    efficient    readers,    they   must 
have  access  to  much  easy  reading  material. 

2.  Experiments   indicate   that   there   is   no   general   silent- 
reading   ability,    but   that    efficiency   in   reading   varies 
with  the  type  of  subject-matter. 

3.  Since   there  are   apparently   as   many   reading  abilities 
as   there   are   types   of  material,   pupils   should   receive 
specific   training  in   reading  various  kinds   of  subject- 
matter. 

4.  The  aim  of  an  exercise   in   silent  reading  largely   de- 
termines   the    type    of    subject-matter    that    should    be 
used. 

5.  Available  sources  which  enable  the  teacher  to  present 
to   the   pupils  the  various   types   of   subject-matter  are 
the  basic  reader  and  supplementary  readers,  textbooks 
of  history,  geography,  hygiene,  and  civics,  and  pamph- 
lets pertaining  to  subjects  of  general  interest. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Bobbitt,  Franklin.  "Reading  in  the  elementary  schools  of 
Indianapolis:  The  reading  materials."  Elementary  School 
Journal,  Vol.  19  (May)  1919. 


202  SILENT  READING 

Courtis,  S.  A.  "Analysis  of  reading  ability."  Journal  of 
Educational  Research,  Vol.  4,  (November)  1921. 

Greene,  Harry  A.  "Measuring  comprehension  of  content 
material."  The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  So- 
ciety for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  /T.  Public  School 
Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1921. 

Horn,  Ernest.  "A  constructive  program  In  silent  reading." 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  3,  (May)  1921. 

Horn,  Ernest.  "Selection  of  silent-reading  textbooks." 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  2  (October)  1920. 

Shepherd,  Edith.  "Some  silent-reading  lessons  in  junior 
high-school  English."  School  Review,  Vol.  29,  (March) 
192L 

Stone,  C.  R.  Silent  and  Oral  Reading.  Hough  ton  Mifflin 
Company,  Boston,  1922. 

Sutherland,  A.  H.  "Correcting  school  disabilities  in  read- 
ing." Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  23,  (September) 
1922. 

Wilson,  Estaline.  "Specific  teaching  of  silent  reading." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (October)  1921. 


PART  TWO 


CHAPTER  XI 
SILENT  BEADING  IN  GRADES  I  AND  II 

The  primary  teacher's  duty.  The  effective  teaching 
of  silent  reading  to  first-grade  pupils  taxes  the  ingen- 
uity of  the  best  teachers.  On  the  first  day,  the  little 
folks  come  to  school  eager  to  learn,  but  with  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  §ymbols  which  are  so  full  of  meaning  to 
their  older  brothers  and  sisters.  It  is  the  primary  teach- 
er 's  duty  and  privilege  to  aid  these  children  in  their 
earliest  attempts  to  solve  the  mysteries  of  reading. 

Oral  or  silent  reading-  in  grade  I.  Regardless  of 
the  method  used  to  teach  beginning  reading,  silent  read- 
ing should  have  a  place  beside  oral  reading.  Authori- 
ties do  not  agree  as  to  the  relative  emphasis  which 
should  be  placed  on  oral  and  silent  reading  in  the  work 
of  the  beginning  grades.  Advocates  of  oral  reading 
claim  that  it  is  natural  for  pupils  in  these  grades  to 
give  oral  expression  to  the  symbols  of  reading,  and 
that  only  in  this  way  can  pupils  be  taught  to  read. 
Others  contend  that  overemphasis  of  oral  reading  in 
beginning  grades  largely  accounts  for  the  slow  read- 
ing rate  of  many  pupils  in  the  more  advanced  grades. 
It  is  believed  that  the  inherited  tendency  to  inner  speech 
and  lip-movement  is  also  accentuated  by  much  oral  read- 

205 


206  SILENT  READING 

ing.  Many  teachers  would  practically  eliminate  oral 
reading  in  lower  grades,  except  for  reading  poetry  or 
stories  to  a  class  audience.  We  believe  there  is  a  legi- 
timate place  for  both  kinds  of  reading  even  in  the 
first  grade.  Pupils  should  read  silently  more  than  they 
read  aloud,  even  from  the  begining  of  their  school  work. 

Material  for  use  in  silent  reading.  The  progressive 
teacher  is  not  content  to  have  her  pupils  use  only  one 
primer  or  reader.  She  may  adopt  one  as  -the  basis 
for  her  classwork  in  reading,  and  undoubtedly  should 
do  so,  but  at  least  three  or  four  other  books  should  be 
read.  She  should  stress  blackboard  work,  especially 
during  the  early  weeks  of  the  first  year. 

The  content  of  the  most  widely  used  primers,  first 
readers,  and  second  readers  is  rich  in  stories  and  nurs- 
ery rhymes.  Although  these  are  excellent  for  reading 
purposes,  they  should  be  supplemented  by  material  se- 
lected from  the  library  and  by  blackboard  lessons  based 
upon  classroom  projects  and  excursions. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read  widely  both  in 
and  out  of  school.  Tt  is  a  proven  maxim  that  "we 
learn  to  read  by  reading."  This  is  emphasized  by  the 
following  statements  which  recently  appeared  in  the 
Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education: 


Schools  in  which  a  large  number  of  books  are 
in  primary  grades,  as  a  rule  produce  stroner  readers 
In  the  St.  Louis  survey  a  large  proportion  of  the  pupils 
were  found  to  be  reading  many  books  silently  during 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  207 

the  second  and  third  grades.  In  some  classes  the  chil- 
dren read  as  many  as  one  book  a  day.  The  tests  showed 
that  these  children  were  markedly  superior  to  those 
who  did  not  have  such  opportunity.  The  extensive 
reader  acquires  a  wide  field  of  experience,  secures  much 
practice  in  silent  reading  for  the  thought,  the  thread 
of  the  story,  or  the  points  of  interest.  He  becomes 
practiced  in  phrasing.  His  vocabulary  is  increased 
through  the  acquisition  of  words  whose  meaning  is 
gathered  from  the  context. 

Subject-matter  for  beginners.  Unfortunately,  the 
old-fashioned  method  of  teaching  beginning  reading  still 
prevails  in  many  schools.  Teachers  select  primers  whose 
content  has  no  intrinsic  value  as  literature  or  story 
material,  books  which  are  without  interest  for  the  child. 
Their  sole  merit  lies  in  the  ingenious  repetition  of  cer- 
tain words  merely  for  the  sake  of  the  repetition.  From 
the  beginning,  the  use  of  such  books  requires  one  to 
emphasize  the  recognition  of  words,  with  the  result  that 
children  form  the  habit  of  reading  this  meaningless 
material  hesitatingly,  one  word  at  a  time,  as  shown 
by  the  following  sentences. 

"See"— "my"— "doll." 

"  gee '  y-1 '  my ' '— ' '  little ' '— ' '  doll. ' ' 

«•  See ' '— ' '  my ' '— ' '  pretty ' '— ' '  doll. ' ' 

Such  work  causes  the  child  to  change  his  attitude 
towards  reading.  He  loses  his  eager  desire  to  know 
what  is  in  books  because  the  first  ones  are  uninteresting, 
and  he  comes  to  look  upon  reading  as  a  task  instead  of 
a  means  of  obtaining  delightful  experiences.  This  is 


208  SILENT  READING 

not  alone  wrong,  it  is  deplorable.  At  the  very  begin- 
ning of  their  school  work  children  should  get  the  idea 
that  reading  consists  of  getting  the  meaning  from  the 
printed  page.  That  idea  should  be  constantly  rein- 
forced by  the  use  of  meaningful  material  which  is  within 
the  range  of  their  interests  and  understanding. 

Material  of  the  proper  kind  is  to  t>e  found  in  many 
beautifully  illustrated  primers  and  first  readers  whose 
subject-matter  has  always  fascinated  children.  The  vo- 
cabularies of  those  readers  have  been  simplified,  but 
content  has  not  been  sacrificed  to  simplicity.  Repe- 
tition appears  in  them  not  as  a  mechanical  drill  device, 
but  as  an  integral  part  of  the  story.  Such  reading 
books,  supplemented  by  blackboard  lessons  based  on 
classroom  activities,  make  the  teaching  of  reading  a  joy 
to  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

Methods  for  use  with  beginners.  Even  when  using 
the  proper  kind  of  subject-matter  the  teaching  of  read- 
ing may  be  ineffective  because  of  faulty  presentation. 
Teachers  should  avoid  using  methods  which  tend  to  de- 
velop habits  that  will  handicap  pupils  in  their  subse- 
quent work.  The  basic  primer  which  contains  trite, 
uninteresting  subject-matter  too  often  leads  teachers  to 
overemphasize  the  mechanics  of  reading.  Reading  les- 
sons become  word  and  phonic  drills,  and  pupils  read 
in  a  parrotlike  fashion.  Word  and. phrase  drills  do 
have  their  proper  place  in  a  method  of  primary  read- 
ing instruction,  but  that  place  is  after  the  reading  of 
the  story  not  before  it.  Then  pupils  realize  the  need 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  209 

of  knowing  the  meaning  of  particular  word  groups; 
then  the  isolated  phrases  have  content  meaning. 

There  are  several  good  methods  of  teaching  reading 
to  beginners.  These  differ  in  the  content  on  which  they 
are  based  rather  than  in  .procedure,  because  all  empha- 
size thought-getting.  It  is  unlikely  that  any  one  method 
is  best  for  all  teachers.  Usually,  the  better  plan  is  to 
use  one  method  as  a  basis  for  the*  beginning  work  and 
to  supplement  it  with  others.  Three  popular  methods 
used  extensively  and  successfully  are  here  described 
and  appraised. 

The  action  method.  Briefly  stated,  this  method  is 
based  upon  the  use  of  words  which  express  action. 
Teachers  who  use  it  usually  have  the  pupils  begin  read- 
ing in  a  primer  during  the  sixth  week  of  school.  The 
choice  of  words  that  form  the  content  of  the  early  les- 
sons is  to  some  extent  governed  by  the  vocabulary  of 
the  first  primer  lessons. 

During  the  first  few  days  of  school  the  children's  at- 
tention is  focused  on  several  simple  action  words  such 
as  "run,"  "jump,"  "hop,"  "skip,"  etc.  The  teacher 
begins  by  printing  one  of  those  words  —  "hop"  —on 
the  blackboard,  and  telling  the  pupils  that  they  are  to 
observe  what  she  is  going  to  do,  because  she  will  do  what 
the  word  says.  As  soon  as  the  pupils  discover  what 
the  teacher  does,  they  tell  her  what  word  she  has  writ- 
ten. Following  that,  several  children  point  to  the  word 
and  do  what  it  says.  As  the  lessons  progress,  all  old 
words  are  constantly  reviewed. 


210  SILENT  READING 

As  soon  as  pupils  are  able  to  recognize  several  words, 
the  teacher  prints  short  sentences  either  on  the  black- 
board or  on  strips  of  cardboard.  The  children  are 
then  asked  to  obey  the  commands  stated  in  those  sen- 
tences. Sentences  such  as  "Run  to  me,"  "Hop  to  your 
seat,"  "Skip  to  me,"  can  be  introduced  after  two  or 
three  days'  work. 

Games  may  be  matle  a  part  of  the  review  work.  One 
child,  playing  "teacher,"  should  be  allowed  to  point 
to  words  and  sentences,  then  to  call  on  other  pupils 
to  respond  by  performing  the  action  indicated  by  the 
designated  word  or  phrase.  The  printed  directions  may 
be  shown  either  on  the  blackboard  or  on  the  cardboard 
strips. 

Appraisal  of  the  action  method.  The  action  method 
is  valuable  for  teaching  beginning  reading,  because  chil- 
dren like  to  do  things  and  consequently  preserve  a 
lively  interest  in  this  work,  which  is  little  else  than  a 
sort  of  game.  This  method  minimizes  oral  reading,  and 
furnishes  the  teacher  with  a  simple  but  reliable  measure 
of  apprehension  and  comprehension. 

Two  outstanding  defects  of  the  action  method  render 
it  unsatisfactory  if  it  is  used  exclusively.  It  promotes 
children's  tendency  to  see  separate  words  instead  of 
word  groups.  The  word,  instead  of  the  thought,  be- 
comes the  unit.  This  word-reading  produces  readers 
who  are  slow  in  rate  and  weak  in  ability  to  comprehend. 
A  second  defect  of  the  action  method  is  that  teachers 
who  use  it  are  likely  to  prepare  exercises  which  include 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  211 

subject-matter  of  but  little  interest  to  pupils,  and  words 
that  are  not  in  their  vocabularies. 

The  project  method.  Many  teachers  believe  that 
they  obtain  the  best  results  in  beginning  reading  when 
they  base  the  lessons  on  schoolrom  activities  or  projects. 
When  the  teacher  uses  this  method  she  does  not  have 
the  pupils  begin  reading  on  the  first  day  of  school  but 
postpones  it  for  several  days.  During  that  time  the 
teacher  tells  stories  which  she  helps  the  children  to 
dramatize  in  a  small  way,  or  she  discusses  some  topic 
of  interest  to  the  class.  Sometimes  the  whole  class  un- 
dertakes the  execution  of  a  project  such  as  building  a 
playhouse  or  dressing  a  doll.  Children  are  encouraged 
to  bring  their  toys  and  pets  to  school.  Much  free  lan- 
guage work  then  centers  around  these  activities  and 
objects.  The  teacher  then  selects  some  subject  of  gen- 
eral interest  to  the  class,  which  is  related  to  the  class- 
room activities.  In  her  own  informal  talks  about  the 
subject  selected  she  uses  words  and  groups  of  words 
that  are  to  appear  in  the  first  reading  lessons. 

A  lesson  of  this  type  reported1  by  H.  A.  Brown  of 
the  Oshkosh  State  Normal  School  was  based  on  the  topic 
"Rabbits."  For  several  days  the  interest  of  the  class 
had  been  centered  on  some  rabbits  which  a  pupil  had 
brought  to  school.  One  morning  when  the  children 
reached  the  classroom,  they  saw  on  the  blackboard  pic- 
tures of  a  mother  rabbit  and  her  young  one.  These 
sentences  appeared  beneath  the  respective  pictures. 

'Brown  H.  A.  "Formulation  of  method  in  reading."  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  2,  (June)  1920. 


212  SILENT  READING 

Here  is  a  big  mother  rabbit. 
This  is  a  little  baby  rabbit. 

As  the  pupils  had  previously  used  these  sentences  in 
the  informal  discussion  of  the  words,  the  teacher  now 
directed  attention  to  the  printed  forms,  the  sentences 
were  used  again  in  various  ways,  and  later  various 
pupils  read  them. 

On  the  second  day  the  two  sentences  were  read  many 
times,  and  a  third,  familiar  to  the  class  from  oral  drill, 
was  added.  This  plan  was  continued  for  several  days, 
the  old  sentences  being  constantly  reviewed  in  connec- 
tion with  tke  new  until  a  complete  story  was  built  up. 
The  pupils  soon  had  a  vocabulary  which  enabled  the 
teacher  to  conduct  new  lessons  by  using  familiar  words. 
The  sentence  was  always  the  unit;  children  were  never 
allowed  to  read  word  by  word. 

A  classroom  project.1  A  lesson  of  this  same  type, 
presented  to  a  class  that  had  been  reading  a  week  or 
so,  was  based  on  the  topic  "Goldfish."  As  the  pupils 
had  been  talking  about  the  goldfish  they  had  at  home, 
the  teacher  suggested  getting  some  for  the  schoolroom. 
That  suggestion  immediately  aroused  intense  interest. 

In  response  to  the  teacher's  questioning,  the  children 
suggested  the  need  of  water,  shells,  and  weeds,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  goldfish  and  bowl.  These  words,  printed 
on  the  blackboard  when  first  mentioned,  were  also 
printed  on  slips  of  paper  which  the  pupils  used  as 

*Gray,  W.  S.  "Reading:  in  the  elementary  schools  of  India- 
napolis: Part  IT."  Elementary  School  Journal-  Vol.  19.  (March) 
1919. 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  213 

labels  for  the  objects  when  the  latter  were  obtained. 
Following  that,  the  teacher  told  the  class  that  they 
were  ready  "to  put  the  various  articles  together.'*  The 
sentences  below  were  written  on  the  blackboard,  and 
the  cHild  who  first  read  each  was  assigned  to  carry 
out  the  direction  stated. 

Get  the  bowl. 
Put  water  in  the  bowl. 
Put  shells  in  the  water. 
Put  weeds  in  the  bowl. 
Put  fish  in  the  water. 

During  the  language  period  which  followed  this  les- 
son, the  teacher  asked  the  pupils  to  relate  the  experi- 
ences of  the  reading  recitation,  and  as  they  did  so  the 
following  sentences,  given  by  the  pupils,  were  written 
on  the  blackboard.  Later  the  story  was  hectographed 
and  handed  to  the  pupils,  who  then  read  and  discussed  it. 

Goldfish 

We  have  four  goldfish. 
We  put  them  in  a  dish. 
We  put  water  in  the  dish. 
We  put  shells  in  the  water. 
We  put  weeds  in  the  water. 
Fish  like  to  eat  weeds. 
We  named  the  fish. 
The  father  fish  is  Dick. 
The  mother  fish  is  Lassie. 
One  little  fish  is  Weewee. 
The  other  little  fish  is  Weenee. 

Appraisal  of  the  project  method.      Although   the 


214  SILENT  READING 

project  method  has  much  to  commend  it,  teachers  who 
have  an  inadequate  supply  of  primers  or  whose  primer 
contains  only  meaningless,  uninteresting  subject  mat- 
ter should  not  attempt  to  use  it,  because  every  project- 
method  lesson  should  be  supplemented  by  lessons  that 
appear  in  the  reading  text.  An  exclusive  use  of  the 
project  method  makes  much  extra  work  for  the  teacher, 
because  the  lessons  must  be  very  carefully  prepared  in 
order  to  be  at  all  worth-while  to  the  pupils.  An  inade- 
quate preparation  of  project-method  lesson  material  is 
worse  than  the  hackneyed  subject-matter  of  the  unsat- 
isfactory primers.  The  preparation  of  these  lessons  re- 
quires much  time,  more  than  is  usually  available  to 
teachers  who  have  several  grades  in  one  room.  How- 
ever, teachers  who  have  opportunity  to  prepare  a  back- 
ground for  this  sort  of  lesson  by  presenting  the  pre- 
liminary work,  will  find  that  this  method  of  teaching 
beginning  reading  gives  large  returns  for  the  effort  ex- 
pended. Directing  the  children's  interest  to  interesting 
subject-matter  encourages  thoughtful,  intelligent  read- 
ing, and  quite  properly  makes  the  thought  unit  the 
center  around  which  the  lesson  turns. 

The  story  method.  If  the  teacher  expects  to  use 
this  method  to  teach  beginning  reading,  her  pupils  must 
have  a  primer  that  contains  subject-matter  of  vital  in- 
terest. Primers  of  that  type  are  usually  based  on  nurs- 
ery rhymes  or  folk  tales  such  as  "The  Little  Red  Hen," 
"Three  Billy  Goats  Gruff,"  or  "The  Gingerbread 
Roy."  Some  teachers  have  their  pupils  use  such  prim- 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  215 

ers  for  the  first  recitation.  Others  develop  the  rhymes 
and  stories  by  means  of  blackboard  lessons  during  the 
first  few  weeks,  then  have  the  children  read  from  the 
books.  If  a  good  primer  of  this  type  is  used,  there 
is  no  reason  why  the  children  may  not  read  the  book 
from  the  beginning. 

The  lessons  described  in  the  following  paragraphs 
show  how  the  story  method  is  used.  The  first,  based 
on  nursery  rhymes,  was  preceded  by  two  weeks  of  pre- 
primer  work.  The  second,  based  on  a  folk  tale,  was 
read  directly  from  the  primer. 

Lessons  based  on  nursery  rhymes.  The  rhymes 
•used  for  this  lesson  introduced  Bo-Peep,  Little  Miss 
Muffet,  Jack  Horner,  and  Humpty  Dumpty.  On  the 
first  day  of  school  the  children  enjoyed  themselves  look- 
ing at  several  illustrated  editions  of  Mother  Goose 
rhymes.  They  commented  on  the  illustrations,  identi- 
fied some  of  the  characters,  and  recited  such  rhymes 
as  they  knew.  The  teacher  called  attention  to  the  pic- 
ture of  Little  Bo-Peep,  talked  about  her  to  the  class, 
had  the  pupils  discuss  her,  and  then  had  several  chil- 
dren recite  the  rhyme.  A  number  of  children  who  knew 
the  song  sang  it  to  the  others,  and  during  the  period 
devoted  to  art  instruction  the  class  drew  pictures  of 
Little  Bo-Peep. 

The  following  morning  all  the  children  sang  the  song 
"Little  Bo-Peep."  Then  the  teacher  said,  "How  would 
you  like  to  read  the  rhyme  to  me?  Let  us  print  it  on 
.the  blackboard  where  we  all  can  see  it.  Tell  me  what 


216  SILENT  READING 

to  print  first."  Some  child  suggested,  " Little  Bo-Peep 
has  lost  her  sheep."  That  was  then  printed  as  one  line, 
followed  by  the  three  remaining  lines,  printed  as  the 
children  dictated.  The  rhyme  was  then  read  one  line 
at  a  time,  the  teacher  holding  a  strip  of  cardboard  under 
each  line  as  the  pupils  recited.  Several  children  then 
recited  the  rhyme  line  by  line,  as  the  teacher  moved  the 
marker.  Following  that,  the  teacher  asked  the  class  to 
read  the  lines  she  indicated.  During  that  exercise  she 
did  not  follow  the  regular  order  of  lines. 

For  the  afternoon  lesson  the  teacher  again  printed  the 
rhyme  on  the  blackboard.  She  then  displayed  strips  of 
cardboard  on  which  she  had  printed  phrases  such  as 
Little  "Bo-Peep,  don't  knw  where,  lias  lost  her  slic<  /<. 
etc.,  and  asked  pupils  to  place  the  phrase  cards  under 
the  same  phrases  written  on  the  blackboard.  Pupils  had 
some  difficulty  to  do  this.  They  were  familiar  with  the 
verses  because  of  their  place  in  tho  rhyme,  and  not 
because  they  recognized  the  phrases  as  such.  During 
this  work  some  pupils  volunteered  to  help  others  who 
could  not  readily  locate  the  phraaei. 

The  teacher  next  showed  the  children  a  printed  chart 
which  bore  the  rhyme.  After  the  pupils  had  compared 
this  with  the  rhyme  printed  on  the  blackboard,  in  order 
to  see  if  the  two  were  alike,  the  teacher  cut  each  line 
of  the  rhyme  from  the  chart  and  then  had  the  children 
place  the  line  in  the  proper  order  on  an  improvised  rack. 
While  doing  this  work  the  children  were  guided  by  the 
rhyme  printed  on  the  blackboard. 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  217 

The  following  day  the  teacher  again  printed  the 
rhyme  on  the  blackboard  as  the  children  recited  it,  and 
then  had  them  arrange  the  strips  on  the  rack  as  before. 
This  was  followed  by  a  short  phrase  drill.  The  children 
then  closed  their  eyes  while  the  teacher  removed  one  line 
from  the  rack.  She  afterwards  asked  the  pupils  to  tell 
which  line  had  been  taken  away.  They  did  this  by  com- 
paring the  rhyme  on  the  rack  with  the  one  on  the  black- 
board. After  this  exercise  the  pupils  were  asked  to  use 
their  phrase  cards  for  matching  certain  phrases  on  the 
cards  which  were  placed  on  the  rack. 

For  the  next  lesson  the  teacher  drew  a  blackboard 
picture  of  Little  Bo-Peep  and  her  sheep,  and  wrote  the 
following  sentences  beneath  it. 

This  is  Little  Bo-Peep. 
She  lost  her  sheep. 
Her  she-ep  came  home. 

The  children  were  able  to  recognize  some  of  the  familiar 
phrases  immediately.  By  means  of  drill  the  teacher  soon 
acquainted  them  with  all  the  words  and  phrases  in  these 
sentences. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  teacher  presented  and  devel- 
oped the  three  nursery  rhymes,  "Little  Miss  Muffet," 
"Jack  Homer,"  and  "Humpty  Dumpty."  The  old 
rhyme  was  always  reviewed  in  connection  with  the  new 
by  means  of  such  exercises  as  these. 

Little  Bo-Peep  lost  her  sheep. 

She  went  to  Little  Miss  Muffet. 

Little  Miss  Muffet  was  sitting  on  a  tuffet. 


218  SILENT  READING 

She  was  eating  curds  and  whey. 
She  said,  " Leave  them  alone  and  they'll  come 
home." 

The  teacher  then  showed  sentences  like  the  following, 
printed  on  cardboard  strips. 

Show  me  the  black  spider. 

Show  me  Little  Bo-Peep  and  her  sheep. 

She  then  displayed  pictures  of  the  incidents  mentioned 
in  the  rhymes,  and  upon  showing  one  of  the  cardboard 
strips  containing  a  command,  she  asked  various  children 
to  do  what  the  sentence  directed. 

Rapid  drill  on  the  words  that  frequently  occurred  was 
given  at  separate  periods.  The  teacher  pointed  to  a 
word  on  the  chart  or  blackboard,  then  asked  the  class  to 
indicate  some  other  word  that  resembled  it.  Much  drill 
was  devoted  to  training  in  the  recognition  of  phrases. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  second  week  the  teacher  intro- 
duced short  silent-reading  exercises  consisting  of  printed 
questions  based  on  the  rhymes.  Questions  similar  to  the 
following  were  readily  answered  by  the  pupils. 

Who  lost  her  sheep? 

Did  Bo-Peep  go  to  Little  Miss  Mnffetf 

Who  said,  "Please  help  me  find  my  sheep?" 

At  the  beginning  of  the  third  week  the  children  began 
reading  from  their  primers.  They  first  spent  some  time 
looking  through  their  books,  examining  the  illustrations, 
and  talking  about  the  stories.  They  were  able  to  identify 
many  of  the  rhymes  by  means  of  the  illustrations.  When 
the  pupils  had  looked  through  the  primer  they  turned 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  219 

to  the  first  story.  Some  wanted  to  read  it  at  once,  but 
the  teacher  suggested  that  they  first  read  the  selection 
from  the  pictures  to  make  sure  that  it  was  about  the 
people  of  whom  they  had  been  reading  in  the  black- 
board lessons.  That  finished,  the  pupils  read  the  story 
from  the  book.  All  read  a  sentence  silently  and  then 
some  pupil  was  selected  to  tell  the  class  what  the  line 
said.  If  a  sentence  consisted  of  two  lines,  the  teacher 
explained  that  the  two  were  to  be  read  together.  Thus 
the  entire  story  was  read. 

As  the  second  primer  story  also  consisted  of  a  nursery 
rhyme,  it  was  handled  in  the  same  way.  Drill  on  diffi- 
cult words  and  phrases  was  conducted  at  a  separate 
period  after  reading  the  story.  When  pupils  failed  to 
recognize  a  phrase,  the  teacher  helped  by  asking  some 
question  which  indicated  the  setting  of  the  phrase  in 
the  story.  By  substituting  the  children's  names  for 
those  of  the  story  characters,  as  the  following  sentences 
show,  the  pupils  received  practice  in  recognizing  phrases 
in  new  settings. 

Let  us  play  we  are  Mother  Goose  children. 
•Jack  and  Billy  sat  on  a  wall. 
Mary  sat  on  a  tuffet  in  the  corner. 
Phillip  blew  his  horn. 
Jack,  Billy,  and  Mary  were  frightened. 
Mary  ran  away. 
Billy  had  a  great  fall. 
He  bumped  his  head. 
He  told  Jack  he  broke  his  crown. 


220  SILENT  READING 

Appraisal  of  the  nursery-rhyme  method.  This 
method  of  teaching  beginning  reading  hy  basing  the 
first  reading  lessons  on  nursery  rhymes  has  proved  very 
satisfactory  to  many  teachers.  The  familiar,  meaning- 
ful content  fascinates  pupils.  By  placing  the  emphasis 
on  thought-getting  the  reading  does  not  degenerate  into 
mere  word  calling. 

The  main  objection  to  the  method  is  that  its  use  early 
introduces  into  the  child's  vocabulary  such  unusual 
expressions  as  "sat  on  a  tuffet,"  "broke  his  crown, " 
etc.  However,  as  those  few  unfamiliar  phrases  add  to 
the  jingle  of  the  rhyme,  that  difficulty  has  aparently 
been  overestimated.  When  using  nursery  rhymes,  teach- 
ers must  at  all  times  make  sure  that  pupils  know  the 
same  version  before  they  begin  to  read.  Unless  they 
have  attended  kindergarten  such  is  not  likely  to  be  the 
case,  because  versions  of  the  nursery  ryhmes  taught  in 
different  homes  vary  considerably. 

Lessons  based  on  folk  tales.  The  treatment  of  these 
lessons  resembles  that  of  those  based  on  the  nursery 
rhymes,  the  need  of  pre-primer  work  depending  on  the 
simplicity  of  the  primer  in  hand.  If  pre-primer  work 
is  used,  the  lessons  should  be  based  on  the  first  few 
stories  of  the  chosen  primer  and  should  introduce  the 
important  words  and  phrases  of  the  book.  In  any  case, 
however,  blackboard  lessons  should  precede  and  supple- 
ment reading  from  the  books. 

In  presenting  the  lessons  described  here  the  primer 
was  used  from  the  first,  although  blackboard  or  chart 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  221 

would  have  been  equally  satisfactory.  The  primer  was 
used  because  each  child  had  a  book  of  his  own  and  was 
anxious  to  use  it,  the  vocabulary  of  the  textbook  was 
simple,  and  the  illustrations  were  such  that  children 
could  almost  obtain  the  content  of  the  story  from  them 
alone. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  first  lesson  the  teacher  gath- 
ered the  class  about  her,  distributed  the  books,  and  told 
the  pupils  to  examine  them.  Each  did  so,  remarked 
about  the  illustrations,  and  suggested  stories  that  he 
would  like  to  read.  Pupils  identified  many  stories  by 
means  of  the  illustrations.  When  the  class  had  spent 
some  time  looking  at  the  books,  the  teacher  told  the  story 
of  "The  Little  Red  Hen,"1  using  the  exact  words  of 
the  book  in  so  far  as  possible.  When  she  finished,  the 
pupils  commented  at  length  on  the  characters  and  inci- 
dents described. 

The  teacher  then  asked  the  pupils  to  "read"  the 
story  from  the  pictures.  During  that  exercise  she  so 
worded  her  questions  that  the  children  were  compelled 
to  answer  by  using  the  words  and  phrases  of  the  book, 
with  which  the  teacher's  oral  rendition  had  acquainted 
them.  For  example,  the  teacher  asked:  "What  does 
the  first  picture  tell  about?"  "What  did  the  little  red 
hen  find?"  "What  was  the  little  red  hen  going  to  do 
with  the  seed?"  "What  did  she  say?"  "What  did  the 
pig  say?"  "What  did  the  cat  say?"  etc.  The  chil- 

1PThis   story   appears   In    the  Primer   of    the   Free  and  TreadweU 
Reading-Literature  Series  published  by  Row,   Peterson  and 
pany,  Chicago. 


222  SILENT  READING 

dren's  answers,  in  complete  sentences,  were  as  follows: 
"The  first  picture  tells  us  about  the  little  red  hen." 
"The  little  red  hen  found  a  seed."  "The  little  red  hen 
was  going  to  plant  the  seed."  "She  said,  'Who  will 
plant  the  seed ?'"  "The  pig  said,  'Not  I.'  "  "The  cat 
said,  'Not  I,1"  etc. 

On  the  following  day  the  teacher  explained  that  the 
pupils  were  to  read  the  story  of  "The  Little  Red  Hen" 
again,  but  in  a  different  way,  not  altogether  from  the 
pictures.  She  again  told  the  story,  and  as  she  used  each 
phrase  she  displayed  a  card  on  which  it  appeared.  She 
taught  the  phrases,  "Who  will  plant  the  seed!",  "Not 
I,"  "I  will  then,"  "and  she  did,"  in  this  way.  During 
the  next  few  minutes  the  pupils  identified  the  phrases 
by  comparing  the  words  of  their  books  with  the  phrases 
printed  on  the  cards,  the  teacher  giving  needed  assist- 
ance. The  drill  was  concluded  when  the  pupils  showed 
signs  of  fatigue.  Whenever  a  child  located  a  phrase 
which  he  could  not  read,  the  teacher  asked  some  ques- 
tion about  the  content  so  as  to  help  him.  The  brighter 
children  readily  recognized  the  phrases  of  the  first  Let- 
son  which  occur  throughout  the  story. 

On  the  afternoon  following  this  lesson  the  children 
actually  read  the  text  of  the  story.  At  that  time  the 
teacher  distributed  markers  and  explained  their  use, 
telling  the  children  to  place  the  marker  under  each 
line  as  it  was  read.1  Whenever  necessary  the  teacher 

JMany  teachers  find  that  rhfHren  who  use  a  marker  during: 
the  beginning  work  are  less  likely  to  form  the  pernicious  habit 
of  following  the  lines  with  the  finger. 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  223 

told  the  class  to  drop  the  marker  two  lines  instead  of 
one.  In  reading,  the  teacher  designated  the  line,  asked 
the  class  to  read  it  silently,  then  asked  some  child  to 
read  it  aloud.  If  the  pupil  had  difficulty  in  reading 
a  line,  the  teacher  helped  him  by  means  of  a  question 
that  gave  the  phrase  its  setting.  For  example,  when 
the  class  could  not  read  the  line,  "The  little  red  hen 
said,  'Who  will  plant  the  seed?',"  the  teacher  explained 
that  the  line  told  what  the  little  red  hen  said  when 
she  found  the  seed.  She  also  displayed  a  phrase  card 
bearing  the  expression,  ' l  The  pig  said,  '  Not  I. '  '  When- 
ever a  pupil  interpreted  the  content  correctly  but  failed 
to  use  the  words  of  the  book  as  he  did  so,  the  teacher 
explained  that  the  sentence  in  question  meant  what  the 
child  said,  but  that  he  had  used  the  wrong  words.  For 
example,  one  pupil  said,  "The  pig  said,  'I  won't.'  ' 
The  teacher  then  asked  the  other  members  of  the  class 
to  tell  the  pig's  exact  words. 

Each  exercise  of  the  type  just  described  was  followed 
by  a  word  and  phrase  drill  during  the  next  period. 
During  such  drills  the  children  were  allowed  to  help 
each  other.  Similar  phrase  drills  were  used  for  review 
exercises. 

During  such  lesson  presentations  as  have  been  de- 
scribed the  teacher  must  be  alert  every  minute.  She 
must  help  the  children  to  adjust  their  markers,  she 
must  ask  questions  that  will  bring  out  the  content  of 
each  sentence,  and  she  must  see  that  all  take  an  active 
part  in  the  recitation.  Each  story  must  be  carefully 


224  SILENT  READING 

developed  according  to  the  following  steps,  whose  order 
must  not  be  modified  if  the  teacher  expects  to  obtain 
the  best  results. 

1.  Tell   the  story   in   an   interesting  manner,   being 
careful  to  preserve  the  proper  sequence  of  inci- 
dents and  to  use  the  important  words  and  phrases 
of  the  book  as  much  as  possible. 

2.  Have  the  pupils  "read"  the  story  from  the  pic- 
tures.    Use  skillful  questioning  that  will  encour- 
age them  to  reproduce  the  exact  words  and  phrases 
of  the  text. 

3.  Re-tell  the  story  to  the  class,  making  use  of  word 
cards  and  phrase  cards. 

4.  Have  the  children  locate  certain  phrases,  compare 
the  phrases  on  the  cards  with  those  in  the  book, 
and  read  the  sentences  of  the  book  which  contain 
the  phrases  being  studied. 

5.  Have  the  pupils  read  the  story,  from  the  book, 
sentence  by  sentence,  at  first  silently,  then  orally. 

6.  Give  blackboard   and   flash-card   drill  on  words, 
phrases,  and  sentences  which  are  to  be  fixed  in 
the  minds  of  the  pupils. 

7.  Conclude  the  study  of  a  story  by  having  the  chil- 
dren dramatize  it   for  presentation  before  some 
other  group. 

Phonics  in  beginning-  reading.    The  exact  relation  of 
phonic  instruction  to  the  successful  teaching  of  begin- 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  225 

ning  reading  has  not  yet  been  determined  scientifically, 
and  there  is  still  a  lack  of  data  on  the  subject. 

Currier  and  Duguid  report1  an  experiment  conducted 
in  the  first  and  second  grades.  The  pupils  of  each 
grade  were  classified  into  two  groups,  one  being  taught 
by  means  of  phonic  drill,  the  other  by  means  of  the 
sense-content  method,  supplemented  by  drill  with  word 
and  phrase  cards.  At  the  end  of  the  year  those  chil- 
dren who  had  received  instruction  in  phonics  pronounced 
words  accurately,  but  could  with  difficulty  reproduce 
what  they  read.  Concentration  on  the  sounds  of  let- 
ters had  diverted  their  attention  from  the  sense  of  the 
material  to  mere  word  pronunciation.  The  pupils  who 
had  received  no  phonic  training  were  less  accurate  in 
pronunciation,  but  they  could  read  more  rapidly  and 
fluently  and  could  more  readily  reproduce  what  they 
read.  The  ability  of  the  two  groups  to  attack  new 
words  was  approximately  equal.  The  authors  state  that 
"foreign  children,  those  having  impediments  of  speech, 
and  those  who  had  previously  formed  bad  habits  of 
pronunciation  were  greatly  benefited  by  the  phonic 
drills/' 

Appraisal  of  the  phonic  method.  Although  the  re- 
sults of  this  experiment  are  not  sufficiently  extensive 
to  serve  as  the  basis  for  final  conclusions,  nevertheless 
they  support  the  opinions  formed  by  many  who  have 
made  a  study  of  primary-reading  methods.  These  con- 
tend that  an  overemphasis  of  phonics  is  detrimental  to 

Currier,  Lillian  B.,  and  Dusruid,  Olive  €.  "Phonics  or  no 
phonics?"  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  17,  (December)  1916. 


226  SILENT  READING 

the  formation  of  good  reading  habits,  and  that  begin- 
ning reading  can  be  taught  successfully  by  using  little 
phonic  drill,  if  any.  So  far  as  pronunciation  is  con- 
cerned, phonics  gives  the  pupil  a  method  of  attacking 
new  words,  and  tends  to  make  him  an  independent 
reader  very  early  in  his  school  life.  But  it  is  likely 
that  other  less  desirable  results  which  are  not  so  readily 
recognized  come  from  the  early  introduction  of  phonics. 

Phonic  drill  centers  the  child's  attention  on  single 
letters  or  on  small  groups  of  letters.  This  prevents  the 
development  of  the  wide  eye-span  necessary  to  effective 
silent  reading.  Phonics  also  divert  the  child's  attention 
from  the  meaning  of  a  story  to  the  mechanics  of  read- 
ing, as  is  shown  when  he  stops  short  in  his  reading  of 
a  selection  to  "sound"  some  unfamiliar  word.  That 
practice  causes  him  to  lose  the  thread  of  the  story;  his 
so-called  reading  is  mere  word-calling. 

When  should  phonics  be  begun?  There  is  little 
agreement  among  teachers  as  to  the  time  when  phonic 
drill  should  be  introduced,  or  the  emphasis  it  should 
receive.  Miss  Watkins,  who  begins  phonic  instruction 
during  the  first  few  weeks  of  school,  says1  that  after 
the  children  are  classified  and  arranged  in  their  respec- 
tive groups  the  daily  work  in  phonics  should  begin. 
Miss  Hardy,  teacher  in  the  elementary  school  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  begins  phonic  work  during  the 
sixth  week  of  school.2  Brown  seriously  questions  the 

'Watkins.  Emma.  How  to  Teach  ftilent  Reading  to  Beginners. 
J.  B.  T^fppincott  Company,  Philadelphia.  1922. 

•Parker.  Samuel  Chester.  "How  to  teach  beidnningr  reading: 
Part  III."  Elementary  School  Journal,  VoL  22.  (November)  1921. 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  227 

use  of  phonic  drill  and  word  analysis  during  the  early 
stages  of  reading.     He  says:1 

Certain  considerations  must  be  taken  into  account 
in  connection  with  the  problems  of  phonetic  drill.  What 
reading  habits  are  most  desirable?  What  procedure  in 
teaching  is  conducive  to  their  development?  These  are 
questions  which  must  receive  serious  consideration. 
Speed  is  a  highly  desirable  factor  in  reading  ability, 
merely  as  a  timesaver  if  for  no  other  reason.  All  haoits 
which  lead  to  slow  and  ponderous  reading  must  be 
avoided.  Speed  in  reading  depends  in  part  upon  the 
size  of  the  units  of  recognition,  i.  e.,  the  amount  which 
can  be  seen  by  the  reader  during  eye-pauses,  and  in 
part  upon  the  duration  of  eye-pauses.  The  individual 
who  sees  only  a  small  portion  of  the  line  during  an 
eye-pause  must  make  many  fixations.  The  longer  the 
eye-pauses,  the  slower  will  be  the  reading,  other  things 
being  equal.  Will  not  a  habit  of  attention  to  textual 
details  inevitably  result  in  slowness  in  reading?  Will 
not  a  habit  of  recognition  through  dominant  charac- 
teristics of  words  and  phrases,  with  their  minute  par- 
ticulars marginal  in  attention,  become  a  distinct  aid  in 
interpreting  thought?  Is  not  the  inevitable  result  of 
two  or  three  years  of  persistent  drill  on  the  isolated 
elements  of  words  bound  to  be  a  predominant  habit 
of  attention  to  the  minute  particulars  of  words?  Can 
the  eye  be  trained  to  take  in  large  units  by  practice 
on  small  ones?  Will  not  prolonged  attention  to  word 
forms  effectively  prevent  the  development  of  a  habit 
of  thinking  meanings  as  one  reads? 

In  view  of  the  facts  at  hand,  it  seems  to  me  to  be 
a  radically  wrong  procedure  to  introduce  such  a  large 
amount  of  abstract  phonetic  drill  in  the  earliest  stages 
of  reading  as  is  often  found.  It  seems  to  me  to  be  a 


H.  A.     "Formulation  of  method  in  reading."    Journal 
of    Educational   Research,    Vol.    2,    (June)    1920. 


228  SILENT  READING 

very  obvious  inference  that  the  predominant  emphasis 
in  method  at  the  beginning  must  be  upon  the  instantan- 
eous recognition  of  words  and  word  groups,  the  mental 
process  being  concerned  with  meanings  rather  than  with 
word  forms. 

The  children  of  the  third  grade  in  the  training  de- 
partment of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Oshkosh  spent 
the  first  two  years  in  extensive  reading  of  simple  stories 
for  pure  enjoyment,  with  their  attention  entirely  on 
the  content.  During  the  reading  period  all  words  not 
instantly  recognized  were  told  immediately.  Word  de- 
velopment was  taken  up  in  separate  periods,  the  words 
being  incorporated  in  phrases  for  drill,  and  no  atten- 
tion being  called  to  the  elements  of  words.  Approxi- 
mately fifty  minutes  per  day  were  spent  on  all  phases 
of  reading,  including  silent  reading,  word  development 
and  study,  and  oral  reading.  Silent  reading  was  begun 
early  in  the  first  year.  Before  the  end  of  the  second 
year  the  children  began  to  pronounce  new  words  with- 
out help,  applying  independently  the  general  knowledge 
of  phonic  laws  acquired  unconsciously  through  much 
reading. 

Beginning  with  the  third  year,  the  children  were  en- 
couraged to  organize  the  phonic  facts  so  gained,  and 
the  four  or  five  most  common  principles  of  phonics 
were  taught.  A  short  period  at  the  end  of  the  day 
was  devoted  to  "pronouncing  long  words,"  as  the  chil- 
dren called  it.  This  period  became  so  popular  that 
only  with  difficulty  were  the  children  persuaded  to  omit 
it  on  special  occasions.  Recently  they  were  pronounc- 
ing with  ease  and  enjoyment  such  words  as  hydrocar- 
bon, hydrometer,  tuberculosis,  capitulate,  centigrade, 
epidote,  actuate,  and  many  others  of  equal  difficulty, 
without  the  aid  of  diacritical  marks  or  context. 

These  children  have  developed  insatiable  appetites  for 
reading,  and  they  read  intelligently  and  accurately  with 
good  expression  and  excellent  speed.  Of  the  two  daily 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  229 

reading  lessons  in  the  third  grade,  one  is  devoted  to  oral 
and  the  other  to  silent  reading.  The  children  are  cap- 
able of  reading  any  material  suited  to  their  age  in 
content,  and  they  read  great  numbers  of  books  during 
spare  periods  and  out  of  school  hours. 

Deferred  phonic  training.  Although  many  teachers 
believe  that  the  first  week  of  school  is  too  early  for 
beginning  instruction  in  phonics,  they  think  that  pupils 
need  phonic  drill  before  the  beginning  of  the  third  grade, 
and  that  they  can  use  phonics  to  advantage  before  that 
time.  Such  teachers  usually  introduce  phonic  drill 
toward  the  close  of  the  first  school  year,  about  two 
months  or  six  weeks  before  the  close  of  the  final  semes- 
ter. By  that  time  pupils  have  usually  read  several 
primers  and  first  readers.  The  emphasis  on  content  has 
caused  them  to  form  the  habit  of  reading  for  meaning 
and  recognizing  new  words  by  their  setting  in  the  con- 
text. Although  special  training  in  word  analysis  is 
not  given  by  these  teachers,  they  insist  on  clear  enuncia- 
tion during  music  exercises  and  during  the  recitation 
of  poems.  Such  work  is  good  ear  training.  Many  bright 
children  seem  to  devise  a  system  of  attacking  new  words. 
For  the  benefit  of  the  majority  of  the  class,  however, 
certain  periods  should  be  devoted  to  special  drill  at 
this  time.  The  introduction  of  phonic  instruction  to- 
ward the  latter  part  of  the  first  school  year  renders 
less  likely  the  development  of  a  habit  of  word-calling. 
Children  at  that  time  recognize  the  value  of  phonics 
as  a  tool  which  will  help  them  to  read.  The  ability 


230  SILENT  READING 

they  have  acquired  during  their  reading  for  content 
enables  them  to  realize  the  need  of  some  sort  of  assist- 
ance. 

Importance  of  practice  in  reading1.  Children  learn 
to  read  well  by  reading  much.  Practice  makes  perfect. 
Wide  reading  brings  the  child  into  contact  with  new 
ideas,  new  phrases,  and  new  words,  and  enables  him 
to  review  many  old  words  and  expressions.  It  is  neces- 
sary for  pupils  in  the  primary  grades  to  have  access 
to  much  interesting  reading  material.  A  minimum  of 
three  primers  and  three  first  readers  should  be  read  in 
the  first  grade.  In  schools  where  there  are  well- 
equipped  libraries  many  more  are  often  read.  The  chil- 
dren should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  do  much  con- 
trolled silent  reading  and  much  supplementary  read- 
ing. As  we  have  already  suggested,  a  supply  of  sup- 
plementary reading  books  may  be  obtained  by  having 
the  pupils  bring  their  story-books  to  the  class  to  ex- 
change with  each  other.  These,  and  any  other  supple- 
mentary reading  material,  should  be  kept  on  a  table 
or  shelf  where  they  will  be  accessible  to  all.  Pupils 
may  be  permitted  to  read  in  those  books  after  they 
have  finished  their  assignments.  Every  effort  should 
be  made,  however,  to  obtain  a  supply  of  books  for  the 
school  library.  A  list  of  books  that  have  proven  highly 
satisfactory  for  use  in  primary  grades  is  given  in  the 
Appendix  (pages  357-381). 

Controlled  silent  reading.     Pupils  of  the  first  and 
second  errades  should  read  silently  during  the  regular 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  231 

class  period  in  order  to  have  the  pleasure  that  comes 
from  reading  good  stories.  Many  of  the  better  first 
and  second  readers  present  in  simple  and  interesting 
style  fairy  tales,  myths,  and  nursery  rhymes  that  have 
long  fascinated  children.  The  teacher  should  let  the 
pupils  read  such  material  and  then  have  them  discuss 
the  stories  when  they  have  finished.  That  practice  cul- 
tivates the  children's  desire  to  read  worthy  material. 

An  example  of  the  interest  that  may  be  aroused  by 
an  exercise  of  this  kind  is  shown  by  the  experience  of 
a  class  which  was  very  anxious  to  read  from  a  new 
set  of  readers  that  had  arrived  a  few  days  previously. 
Upon  examining  the  books  the  class  decided  they  would 
like  to  read  the  story  of  "The  Fisherman  and  His 
Wife."  They  judged  from  the  illustrations  that  this 
would  prove  interesting.  One  child,  who  had  read  the 
story  at  home,  assured  the  others  that  such  was  the 
case.  The  teacher  mentioned  that  she  too  knew  the 
story,  and  she  told  the  pupils  that  she  would  be  inter- 
ested to  learn  whether  or  not  they  would  feel  sorry  for 
the  fisherman  and  his  wife.  Spurred  on  by  these  in- 
centives, the  children  read  the  story  with  keen  interest 
and  discussed  it  thoroughly  when  they  had  finished. 
The  teacher  took  little  part  in  the  discussion;  doubtful 
points,  or  those  on-  which  pupils  disagreed,  were  cleared 
up  by  reference  to  the  book. 

Arousing  children's  interest.  The  practice  of  arous- 
ing an  interest  in  a  lesson  or  task  is  commendable. 
Teachers  often  accomplish  this  by  relating  some  inter- 


232  SILENT  READING 

esting  story  at  the  opening  of  a  reading  period,  then 
asking  the  children  to  read  the  story  from  books  with 
which  she  provides  them.  The  children's  interest  in  the 
story  induces  thoughtful,  purposeful  reading;  the  influ- 
ence of  the  clock  provides  for  a  speedy  rate.  Such  les- 
sons are  usually  concluded  by  asking  a  pupil  to  tell 
the  story,  or  "by  using  it  as  a  topic  for  discussion  dur- 
ing the  English  lesson.  The  latter  plan  is  advisable 
as  a  test  of  comprehension.  A  large  number  of  sup- 
plementary readers  is  a  valuable  asset  to  any  teacher 
who  wants  to  make  the  most  of  children's  interest  in 
good  reading  material. 

SUMMARY 

1.  Silent  reading  should  be  stressed  as  much  as  oral  read- 
ing, even  in  the  first  grade. 

2.  The   teacher   should   encourage   pupils   in   the   primary 
grades  to  read  extensively,  because  much  reading  tends 
to  make  good  readers. 

8.   The  reading  material  used  should  stimulate  and  foster 
the  children's  desire  to  learn  to  read. 

4.  Pre-primer  lessons  should  be  based  only  on  such  mate- 
rial as  children  will  want  to  read  outside  of  school. 

5.  In  the  first  and  second  grades,  phonic  and  word  drills 
are  absolutely  necessary.     They  must  always  be  given 
at  a  period  separate  from  the  reading  recitation. 

6.  The  transition  from   the   blackboard   reading  work   to 
reading  directly  from  the  books  Is  more  readily  made 
If  the  former  is  based  on  the  first  primer  lessons. 

7.  If  first   and    second-grade    pupils,  tre   to   develop    pood 
reading  habits,   the  teacher   must   Emphasize   controlled 
silent  reading,  supplementary  reading,  and  silent-reading 
drill. 

8.  It   Is   essential   that   pupils  in  the  primary  grades  do 
much   reading  for  pleasure. 


GRADES  ONE  AND  TWO  233 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Arnold,  Sarah  L.  Learning  to  Read.  Silver,  Burdett  and 
Company,  Chicago. 

Boggs,  Lucinda.  "How  children  learn  to  read."  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  Vol.  12,  1905. 

Chubb,  Percival.  The  Teaching  of  English.  (Chapters  6 
and  7.)  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  1908. 

Clark,  S.  ,H.  How  to  Teach  Heading  in  the  Public  Schools. 
Scott,  Foresman  and  Company,  Chicago,  1898. 

Gray,  W.  S.  "Principles  of  method  in  teaching  reading 
derived  from  scientific  investigation."  The  Eighteenth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Edu- 
cation: Part  II.  Public  School  Publishing  Company, 
Bloomington,  Illinois,  1919. 

Huey,  Edmund  B.  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Read- 
ing. The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  1908. 

Jenkins,  Frances.  Reading  in  the  Primary  Grades.  Hough- 
ton  Mifflin  and  Company,  Boston,  1915. 

Klapper,  Paul.  Teaching  Children  to  Read.  D.  Appleton 
and  Company,  New  York  City,  1915. 

McMurry,  Lida  B.  Method  for  Teaching  Primary  Reading. 
The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  1914. 

Rapeer,  L.  W.  (and  others).  Teaching  Elementary-school 
Subjects.  (Chapter  7.)  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New 
York  City,  1917. 

Stone,  C.  R.  Silent  and  Oral  Reading.  Hough  ton  Mifflin 
Company,  Boston,  1922. 

Theisen,  W.  W.  "Factors  affecting  results  in  primary  read- 
ing." The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  IT.  Public  School 
Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1921. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  FOR  GRADES 
I  AND  II 

The  need  of  word  and  phrase  drills.  It  is  essential 
that  pupils  in  beginning  reading  classes  frequently  be 
given  effective  word  and  phrase  drills.  These  help  chil- 
dren learn  to  read  by  training  them  to  recognize  words 
and  phrases  quickly,  an  ability  upon  which  progress 
in  reading  largely  depends,  especially  when  little  phonic 
instruction  is  given.  Even  though  the  begining  read- 
ing material  does  consist  of  simple,  interesting  subject  - 
matter,  word  drill  and  supplementary  blackboard  les- 
sons are  necessary.  This  is  particularly  the  case  when 
pupils  have  only  one  or  a  few  readers  available. 

A  number  of  drill  plans  and  devices  suitable  for  use 
with  beginners  are  presented  on  the  following  pages. 
The  exercises  are  only  suggestive;  teachers  should  mod- 
ify them  whenever  necessary,  determining  their  chanprs 
by  the  principle  that  an  exercise  must  always  be  adapted 
to  the  working  vocabulary  of  the  pupils. 

How  to  conduct  drills.  As  a  rule,  the  teacher 
should  classify  each  large  class  into  three  groups  con- 
sisting respectively  of  the  fast,  medium-rate,  and  slow 
readers.  Pupils  do  better  work  when  they  are  included 

234 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  235 

in  a  group  whose  members  are  of  nearly  equal  ability. 
There  is  but  little  incentive  for  a  slow  reader  to  try 
to  read  rapidly,  if  80  per  cent  of  the  class  excel  him 
all  the  time.  If  such  a  pupil  is  placed  in  a  group 
whose  reading  rate  is  nearly  the  same  as  his  own,  he 
realizes  that  he  has  a  fighting  chance  to  excel,  and  is 
consequently  more  likely  to  do  his  best  work  all  the 
time. 

When  conducting  drill  exercises  the  words,  phrases, 
and  sentences  should  be  presented  so  rapidly  that  the 
pupil  can  read  them  only  as  wholes.  The  length  of 
the  exposure  should  be  less  than  the  time  which  a  fast 
reader  requires  to  pronounce  the  words.  Words  and 
phrases  can  be  presented  by  flashing  cards  on  which 
they  are  printed,  more  satisfactorily  than  by  writing 
them  on  the  blackboard.  If  the  teacher  writes  the 
words  on  the  blackboard  as  she  conducts  the  drill, 
pupils  read  them  letter  by  letter  as  they  are  written, 
and  that  destroys  any  value  that  the  drill,  as  such, 
might  have.  If  the  blackboard  is  used,  it  is  well  to 
write  the  list  of  words  before  the  exercise  begins,  cover 
it  with  a  map  or  window  blind  that  rolls  at  the  bottom, 
then  expose  the  words  and  phrases  one  at  a  time. 

The  following  drills  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
the  first  and  second  grades.  Each  should  contain  those 
words  and  phrases  that  most  frequently  occur  in  the 
reading  material  which  the  class  is  studying.  All  work 
should  be  motivated  by  presenting  it  in  the  form  of 
games,  dramatizations,  or  competitive  exercises.  After 


236  SILENT  READING 

the  pupils  learn  how  to  execute  a  number  of  these  word 
and  phrase  drills  and  other  exercises,  the  work  may 
be  truly  pupil-motivated  by  allowing  the  children  to 
choose  the  games  they  wish  to  play. 

EXERCISE  I :    ACTION  WORDS 

All  children  like  to  play  make-believe.  The  teacher 
can  make  use  of  this  tendency  by  presenting  the  fol- 
lowing game  based  on  action  words.  The  exercise  can 
be  varied  by  permitting  the  pupils  who  do  the  best 
work  to  play  "teacher.1 


tt 


How  many  would  like  to  play  a  game  this  morning? 
Would  you  like  to  play  that  we  are  deaf  and  dumb? 
Very  well,  that's  what  we  shall  do.  Under  the  curtain 
is  a  long  list  of  words,  each  of  which  tells  us  some- 
thing to  do.  When  I  point  to  a  word  yon  must  do 
what  it  tells  you.  Remember,  though,  we  are  unable 
to  speak.  Now  let's  see  who  can  act  first. 

stand  rise  run  cry 

smile  clap  hop  turn 

bend  frown  laugh  reach 

sit  jump  skip  walk 

EXERCISE  II:  DRILL  ON  PREPOSITIONS 
Children  often  fail  to  comprehend  a  sentence  because 
they  can  not  distinguish  among  such  words  as  "behind," 
"beside,"  ".beneath,"  etc.  To  remedy  this  defect  the 
teacher  may  use  the  following  exercise  which  is  similar 
to  the  preceding  one.  She  should  select  words  and 
phrases  which  most  frequently  occur  in  future  reading 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  237 

exercises.    Pupils  enjoy  making  a  "race"  of  this  exer- 
cise. 

Print  each  of  the  phrases  given  below  (or  others  if 
more  suitable)  on  a  strip  of  cardboard.  Write  the 
phrase  "Place  your  hands"  on  the  blackboard.  In- 
struct the  children  to  read  the  blackboard  phrase  in 
connection  with  the  cards  as  they  are  flashed,  then  fol- 
low the  command  stated. 

under  the  desk  below  the  desk 

on  the  desk  over  the  desk 

above  the  desk  in  front  of  the  desk 

beneath  the  desk  behind  the  desk 

in  the  desk  upon  the  desk 

beside  the  desk  underneath  the  desk 

EXERCISE  III:    LABELING  OBJECTS  AND  PICTURES 

The  teacher  should  print  on  cards  the  names  of 
objects  and  pictures  of  objects  in  the  room.  Flash 
the  cards  rapidly  before  the  class.  The  pupil  who  can 
first  name  the  word  on  a  card  should  be  allowed  to 
take  the  card  and  use  it  to  label  the  object  or  picture 
to  which  it  refers.  If  the  pupil  who  does  the  labeling 
makes  an  error,  it  should  be  corrected  by  another. 

Children  who  first  successfully  complete  the  exer- 
cise should  be  given  a  supplementary  set  of  cards  to 
use  for  labeling  other  objects,  while  the  remainder  of 
the  class  continues  the  drill.  This  exercise  may  be 
made  competitive  by  dividing  the  class  into  two  groups, 
and  allowing  each  group  to  keep  score  by  reckoning 
the  number  of  objects  and  pictures  which  its  members 
label  correctly. 

Pictures  for  use  in  the  exercise  may  be  cut  from 


238  SILENT  READING 

old  books,  magazines,  newspapers,  and  catalogues,  then 
mounted  on  sheets  of  heavy  paper  or  cardboard. 

EXERCISE  IV:     OPPOSITES 

The  following  exercise,  based  on  the  list  of  words 
given  below  (or  on  any  others  with  which  pupils  are 
likely  to  be  acquainted)  serves  not  only  as  a  drill  on 
the  recognition  of  words,  but  also  as  a  language  drill 
which  emphasizes  both  speed  and  comprehension. 

Prepare  a  number  of  flash  cards  about  6x9  inches  in 
size.  On  one  side  of  a  card  print  a  word,  for  example, 
"cold,"  and  on  the  reverse  print  the  opposite,  in  this 
case,  "hot."  Flash  the  cards  before  the  class.  The 
pupil  who  answers  is  to  call  the  word  that  appears, 
then  give  the  opposite.  Whenever  a  child  answers  cor- 
rectly, give  him  the  card.  The  winner  is  the  pupil  who 
holds  the  most  cards  at  the  close  of  the  exercise. 

black  up  long  young  dirty 

day  heavy  winter  dry  out 

old  clean  white  down  short 

wet  in  night  light  summer 

EXERCISE  V:     SIGNS 

The  use  of  flash  cards  on  which  familiar  and  well- 
known  signs  are  printed  not  only  furnishes  an  excellent 
drill  in  the  rapid  recognition  of  words  and  comprehen- 
sion of  phrases,  but  is  also  of  practical  value  in  that 
it  enables  children  better  to  look  after  their  personal 
welfare.  Children  very  much  enjoy  this  sort  of  drill 
and  eagerly  report  the  new  signs  which  they  discover 
so  that  those  too  may  be  made  a  part  of  the  exercise. 
The  group  of  signs  reproduced  below  is  only  sugges- 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  239 

tive.  The  alert  teacher  will  be  able  to  supplement  it 
with  many  others.  Many  signs  and  slogans  may  be 
found  on  posters  issued  in  behalf  of  the  Bed  Cross 
Society,  health  crusades,  fire  prevention,  etc. 

Stop !    Look !     Listen ! 
Eailway  Crossing.    Look  Out! 
School  House.    Go  Slow! 
Danger!     Sound  Klaxon! 
Slow  down  to  15  miles  per  hour. 
Cars  stop  here. 
Swat  the  fly ! 
Interurban  Station. 

EXERCISE  VI :  DRILL  ON  FAMILIAR  COMBINATIONS 
The  reading  material  used  in  the  first  and  second 
grades  usually  contains  many  words  which  frequently 
appear  in  the  same  combinations.  Drill  on  those  com- 
binations is  very  profitable.  The  phrases  should  be 
printed  on  strips  of  cardboard  which  are  flashed  before 
the  class.  As  already  suggested,  these  flash  cards  must 
be  exposed  but  a  short  time  in  order  to  give  pupils 
practice  in  reading  groups  of  words  as  units.  The  rec- 
ognition of  phrases  at  a  glance  tends  to  develop  speed. 
The  following  list  is  only  suggestive.  In  every  case 
the  teacher  must  base  her  list  on  the  subject-matter 
of  the  textbook  which  the  pupils  have  in  hand. 

by  and  by  long,  long  ago 

one  day  once  there  was 

once  upon  a  time  one  morning 

once  there  lived  the  little  girl 

the  old  woman  the  next  day 


240  SILENT  READING 

on  the  way  thank  you 

good  morning  one  bright  day 

bad  boy  one  summer  morning 

EXERCISE  VII:  SPEED-DEVELOPMENT  DRILL 
The  quick  recognition  of  word  groups  which  appear 
in  the  reading  material  regularly  used  by  the  pupils 
should  be  developed  by  means  of  phrase  drills  that 
tend  to  habituate  the  formation  of  a  wide  eye-span  and 
to  decrease  regressive  eye-movements.  During  such  ex- 
ercises the  pupils  should  be  required  to  work  at  top 
speed.  Large  classes  may  be  divided  into  groups  and 
those  pitted  against  each  other  in  order  to  introduce 
a  spirit  of  competition.  The  class  should  be  asked  to 
refer  to  some  familiar  selection.  The  teacher  then  men- 
tions groups  of  words  such  as  "sing  a  song/'  "play 
with  me,"  "to  see  grandma,"  "into  a  room,"  etc.. 
and  asks  the  pupils  to  "race"  so  that  she  may  see  who 
can  be  the  first  to  find  the  phrase  that  has  been  read. 
Capable  pupils  should  occasionally  be  allowed  to  take 
the  teacher's  place  in  this  exercise. 

EXERCISE  VIII :  ACTION-PHRASE  DRILL 
Children's  ability  to  comprehend  may  be  effectively 
tested  by  presenting  exercises  which  require  the  pupils 
to  carry  out  some  command.  This  and  the  following 
exercise  are  suggestive  of  the  sort  of  drills  which  teach- 
ers can  prepare. 

Write  a  "foundation  sentence"  on  the  blackboard. 
This  should  consist  of  some  general  direction.    Flash 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  241 

cards  bearing  words  or  groups  of  words  which  com- 
plete the  sentence,  having  the  pupils  "race"  to  see 
who  can  answer  first.  The  exercise  may  be  varied  by 
writing  the  "foundation  sentence "  and  all  the  supple- 
mentary phrases  on  the  blackboard,  then  uncovering 
the  latter  one  at  a  time. 
Place  your  hands. . . 

. . .  above  your  head 
...  on  your  hips 
...  on  your  shoulders 
. . .  behind  your  head 
...  in  your  pockets 
. .  .by  your  sides 

SILENT-READING  EXEKCISES  BASED  ON  SCHOOLROOM 
ACTIVITIES  AND  PROJECTS 

EXERCISE  IX:  ACTION  SENTENCES 
An  effective  drill  device,  easily  prepared,  consists  of 
sentence  cards  that  give  instructions  for  performing 
some  schoolroom  activity.  The  sentences  may  be  either 
written  on  the  blackboard  or  printed  on  strips  of  card- 
board. Pupils  should  be  instructed  to  carry  out  the 
command  as  soon  as  they  read  it.  Such  exercises  as 
these  train  the  children  to  grasp  a  group  of  words  at 
a  glance,  and  they  enable  the  teacher  to  measure  the 
comprehension  ability  of  the  pupils.  The  following  sen- 
tences are  typical  of  those  that  may  be  used  for  this 
sort  of  exercise. 

Run  to  the  window  and  look  out. 

Tell  us  what  you  see. 

Place  the  clock  on  the  window  sill. 


242  SILENT  READING 

Turn  the  clock  so  we  cannot  see  the  face. 

See  who  can  find  a  long  string. 

Jack  and  Fred  may  play  horse. 

Bring  me  the  book  of  Mother  Goose  rhymes. 

Who  can  find  " Little  Boy  Blue?" 

Read  it  to  us,  Mary. 

EXERCISE  X:  GAMES  AS  DRILLS 
The  play  instinct  may  be  used  as  the  basis  for  silent- 
reading  drills.  The  following  instructions,  written  on 
the  blackboard  or  printed  on  cards  which  are  flashed 
before  the  class,  are  good  examples  of  a  valuable  com- 
bination of  work  and  play.  Children  enjoy  drills  which 
are  motivated  like  this  one. 

How  many  would  like  to  play  a  new  kind  of  basket 

ball? 
George  and  Willie,  you  may  place  the  chairs  out  of 

the  way. 

Jennie,  bring  the  wastebasket. 
Place  it  in  the  center  of  the  cleared  space. 
Mary,  bring  the  basket  ball  and  place  it  in  the  basket. 
The  boys  will  play  against  the  girls. 
Form  a  big  ring  around  the  basket. 
First  a  boy,  then  a  girl,  then  a  boy,  and  so  on. 
Throw  the  ball  into  the  basket. 
Make  one  try,  then  pass  the  ball  to  the  next  pupil. 
Hand  the  ball  to  the  pupil  on  your  right. 
We  will  mark  the  score  on  the  blackboard. 
You  may  keep  score  for  the  boys,  Joseph. 
You  may  keep  score  for  the  girls,  Florence. 
Is  everybody  ready? 
Francis,  you  may  begin. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  243 

EXERCISE  XI:     DRAMATIZATION 

Stories  such  as  "The  Boy  and  the  Goat,"  "Chicken 
Little,"  "Three  Billy  Goats  Gruff,"1  "The  Three 
Bears,"  "The  Fox  and  the  Grapes,"  "The  Pig 
Brother,"  "The  Dog  in  the  Manger,"  and  "The  Hare 
and  the  Tortoise"  may  be  dramatized  by  first  and  sec- 
ond-grade pupils.  They  enjoy  such  work  because  it 
is  a  type  of  group  activity  which  gives  much  pleasure, 
especially  when  one  class  presents  its  dramatization  be- 
fore another.  Dramatization  is  effective  drill  because 
children  must  read  carefully,  organize,  and  make  an 
effort  to  retain  if  they  are  to  do  the  work  successfully. 
The  final  result  serves  the  teacher  as  a  reliable  measure 
of  children's  ability  to  comprehend. 

In  conducting  a  dramatization  the  teacher  should  first 
ask  the  pupils  to  read  some  familiar  story  silently.  She 
should  then  permit  one  child  to  select  others  who  will 
help  him  act  the  story  in  pantomime.  After  the  presen- 
tation of  the  pantomime  the  pupils  should  be  asked 
to  guess  what  story  was  dramatized.  Directions  for 
presenting  a  selection  may  be  printed  on  cards,  or  writ- 
ten on  the  blackboard  and  used  as  a  flash-card  drill 
in  silent  reading.  The  following  questions  based  on 
the  story  of  "The  Boy  and  the  Goat"  are  suggestive. 

How  many  children  do  we  need  to  play  this  story? 
Whom  shall  we  chose  for  the  little  boy? 
Whom  shall  we  choose  for  the  goat? 

^hese  three  stories  appear  in  the  Primer  of  the  Free  and 
Treadwell  Reading-Literature  Series  published  by  Row,  Peterson 
and  Company,  Chicago. 


244  SILENT  READING 

Where  did  the  goat  run  to? 
What  shall  we  call  the  woods? 
Choose  a  rabbit,  a  squirrel,  and  a  fox. 
Who  wants  to  be  the  little  bee? 
Where  shall  the  home  be? 

EXERCISE  XII:    EXCURSIONS 

Field  excursions,  visits  to  factories,  dairies,  pumping 
stations,  blacksmith  shops,  fire  departments,  and  similar 
places  furnish  excellent  material  upon  which  to  base 
silent-reading  lessons.  One  exercise  may  be  devoted  to 
planning  the  trip,  another  to  relating  what  was  learned 
during  the  visit.  The  following  specimen  lesson  was 
planned  for  a  second-grade  class  one  spring  day. 

As  the  children  were  much  interested  in  the  change 
of  nature  which  indicated  the  coming  of  spring,  the 
teachers  suggested  that  the  class  make  a  trip  to  the 
woods  to  look  for  signs  of  spring.  The  sentences  given 
below  were  written  on  the  blackboard,  then  exposed  one 
at  a  time  for  a  few  seconds,  to  serve  as  a  silent-reading 
drill. 

Before  the  Trip 

We  shall  go  to  the  woods  to  look  for  signs  of  spring. 

Shall  we  follow  the  road  or  the  stream  ? 

Do  we  need  our  caps  and  coats? 

Let  us  go  through  the  halls  quietly. 

Are  we  all  ready? 

Stand. 

Jack,  lead  your  group. 

Mabel,  lead  your  group. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  245 

After  the  Trip 

Which  group  reached  the  woods  first? 

What  did  Olive  see  just  as  we  started? 

What  was  the  bird  doing? 

Would  you  call  that  a  sign  of  spring? 

What  did  we  notice  when  we  reached  the  brook? 

It  has  not  rained  this  week.    Where  do  you  suppose 

the  water  came  from? 
What  happened  to  David's  toy  boat? 
Why  did  he  not  wade  in  to  get  it? 
Who  first  found  the  pussy  willows? 
Where  were  they  growing? 
What  did  we  do  with  them? 
What  other  signs  of  spring  did  we  see? 

EXERCISE  XIII:  MISSING  WORD  DRILLS 
Classroom  work  may  be  correlated  with  reading  les- 
sons in  many  ways,  one  being  indicated  by  the  exercise 
described  below.  Such  drills  may  be  used  even  in  first- 
grade  classes.  They  furnish  an  accurate  measure  of 
children's  ability  to  comprehend! 

Second-grade  pupils  who  had  been  studying  Indian 
life  made  an  Indian  camp  which  they  equipped  with 
as  many  objects  as  they  could  make.  Cards  similar 
to  the  following  were  then  flashed  before  the  class.  The 
pupils  answered  by  supplying  the  missing  word. 

Indians  lived  in . 


They  made  their  homes  of  - 
They  hunted  with  —       -  . 
The  Indians  made  arrows  of  - 
The  Indian  hunters  killed  many 


246  SILENT  READING 

They  used  the  meat  for  -      —  . 
The  skins  were  used  for . 


EXERCISE  XIV:  TRUE-FALSE  DRILL 
Children's  ability  to  comprehend  may  be  quicky  de- 
termined by  flashing  sentences,  some  of  which  are  true, 
others  false,  and  requiring  them  to  give  their  answers 
to  the  statements.  Such  exercises  should  be  based  only 
on  material  which  is  of  value  and  interest  to  the  pupils. 
Lessons  which  deal  with  foods,  clothing,  the  care  of 
the  teeth  and  eyes,  saving  money,  and  similar  topics 
are  not  only  of  value  for  what  they  contain,  but  they 
furnish  excellent  reviews  of  work  already  done  in  na- 
ture study,  hygiene,  geography,  and  other  subjects. 
Such  exercises  as  those  described  below  have  an  addi- 
tional value  in  that  they  enable  the  teacher  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  child's  thinking  about  a  subject  is 
right  or  wrong.  Tf  wrong,  the  teacher  has  an  oppor- 
tunity to  correct  it. 

The  Morning  Meal 
We  should  eat  pie  for  breakfast. 
Porridge  and  milk  is  good  for  us. 
We  should  always  chew  our  food  well. 
We  should  drink  at  least  two  cups  of  coffee. 
We  should  never  eat   oranges  or  other  fruit. 
Eggs  make  a  very  good  breakfast  dish. 
Always  eat  breakfast  quickly,  then  run  to  school. 

Personal  Hygiene 

We  should  always  sleep  with  windows  tightly  closed 
The  living  rooms  should  have  plenty  of  sunshine. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  247 

We  should  clean  our  finger  nails  every  morning. 

It  is  good  for  us  to  have  damp  feet  all  day. 

We  should  clean  our  teeth  every  morning. 

We  should  not  often  take  a  bath. 

We  look  better  if  our  hair  is  not  combed. 

We  should  drink  a  glass  of  water  before  each  meal. 

We  should  all   drink  from  the  same  cup  at  school. 

EXERCISE  XV:  CURRENT  TOPICS 
Valuable  material  on  important  topics  of  interest  to 
primary-grade  pupils  may  be  found  in  pamphlets  of 
various  kinds.  The  questions  given  below,  which  formed 
one  of  a  series  of  lessons  on  the  house  fly,  were  based 
on  an  article  which  the  teacher  adapted  from  the  In- 
ternational Harvester  Company's  bulletin,  "Trap  the 
Fly."  The  lessons  were  presented  at  a  time  when  all 
the  pupils  were  much  interested  in  devising  methods 
of  combating  the  fly. 

The  teacher  printed  a  story  entitled  "Flies  and 
Babies "  on  the  blackboard,  then  asked  the  pupils  to' 
read  it.  Following  that  she  flashed  cards  bearing  ques- 
tions which  pupils  were  to  answer  if  they  could.  The 
cards  were  exposed  only  a  few  seconds. 

Flies  and  Babies 

Do  you  know  that  flies  make  babies  sick? 
They  often  make  the  baby  so  sick  that  he  dies. 
The  fly  gets  into  all  kinds  of  filth. 
He  eats  all  kinds  of  dirty  things. 
His  legs  and  body  are  covered  with  hairs. 
The  dirt  sticks  to  the  hairs. 
Then  the  fly  goes  into  the  house. 


248  SILENT  READING 

He  gets  into  baby's  milk. 

He  leaves  disease  germs  there. 

He  walks  on  the  nipple  of  baby's  bottle. 

He  lights  on  baby's  lips. 

He  crawls  over  baby's  hands. 

He  leaves  dirt  every  place  he  goes. 

Often  the  dirt  makes  baby  sick. 

Let  us  swat  the  fly. 

Questions 

How  do  flies  carry  dirt  and  disease  germs? 
On  what  do  flies  live? 
What  does  the  fly  leave  on  baby's  bottle? 
What  would  you  do  if  you  saw  a  fly  in  baby's  milk? 

EXERCISE  XVI:  HYGIENE  LESSONS 
The  paragraph  below  was  adapted  for  use  in  a  class 
of  second-grade  pupils.  It  is  suggestive  of  the  kind 
of  lesson  that  may  be  prepared  on  the  following  sub- 
jects: The  Value  of  Screens,  How  to  Make  a  Ply  Trap, 
The  Fly  in  Winter. 

Flies 

The  fly  is  a  very  dangerous  insect.  It  is  born  in 
garbage  piles.  It  loves  dirty  places.  You  may  see  it 
getting  its  dinner  from  garbage  pails  and  other  dirty 
places.  Its  hairy  legs  and  body  become  covered  with 
dirt  and  filth.  Then  it  flies  to  the  house.  It  liphN 
on  our  food,  pets  into  the  milk,  walks  over  baby's  face, 
or  over  the  nipple  of  his  bottle.  The  fly  leaves  filth 
wherever  he  goes.  You  all  know  that  many  babies  die 
m  hot  weather.  But  do  you  know  that  it  is  often  the 
dirty  fly  that  makes  them  sick.  More  babies  die  in 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  249 

places  that  have  flies.     Swat,  trap,  or  poison  every  fly 
you  see. 

Questions 

Where  is  the  fly  born? 
Where  does  it  like  to  eat? 
How  does  it  carry  dirt  and  germs? 
What  does  it  do  in  the  house? 
Why  are  flies  so  dangerous? 
How  can  we  get  rid  of  them? 

EXERCISE  XVII:  CHILDREN'S  DIET 
It  is  sometimes  possible  to  use  lessons  of  the  type 
described  in  Exercises  XVI  and  XVII  without  adapt- 
ing the  material.  In  such  cases  the  pamphlet  is  handed 
to  the  children  and  they  are  instructed  to  read  some 
part  of  it  carefully.  When  they  finish,  they  write  an- 
swers  to  questions  which  the  teacher  has  prepared  and 
written  on  the  blackboard.  In  using  this  sort  of  exer- 
cise, which  requires  written  answers,  it  is  well  for  the 
teacher  so  to  frame  the  questions  that  they  may  be 
answered  with  but  little  writing.  * 

The  specimen  lesson  given  below  was  based  on  the 
pamphlet,  "Diet  for  the  School  Child, "  issued  by  the 
extension  department  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa. 
It  was  prepared  by  Miss  Ethel  Hale  for  use  in  a  second- 
grade  class  at  the  university  elementary  school. 

Milk  as  Food 

Milk  is  the  best  and  most  important  food  for  grow- 
ing children.  No  other  food  can  take  its  place.  Chil- 
dren over  five  years  of  age  should  have  at  least  three 


250  SILENT  READING 

cups  a  day,  and  more  when  possible.  Milk  should  not 
be  given  very  cold.  Warm  milk  is  more  easily  digested. 
If  children  do  not  like  milk  alone,  it  may  be  given 
in  the  form  of  cocoa,  soups,  and  custards.  They  often 
can  learn  to  like  milk.  Where  it  is  impossible  to  get 
fresh  milk,  evaporated  milk  may  be  used.  If  evapo- 
rated skimmed  milk  is  given,  give  the  child  plenty  of 
vegetables  and  some  cream  or  butter.  Tea  and  coffee 
should  never  be  given  to  growing  children. 

Questions 

What  is  the  best  food  for  children? 

How  much  should  be  taken  at  each  meal* 

Which  is  better,  cold  or  warm  milk? 

Do  all  children  like  milk? 

How  much  coffee  should  children  drink? 

EXERCISE  XVIII:    RIDDLES 

Riddles  and  rhymes  strongly  appeal  to  children,  and 
may  profitably  be  used  as  the  basis  for  silent-reading 
exercises.  The  child's  answer  is  an  accurate  measure 
of  his  ability  to  comprehend.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
brighter  pupils  from  spoiling  these  riddle  lessons  with 
their  too  rapid  answers,  it  is  well  to  ask  the  class  to 
write  the  answer  to  a  riddle,  or  to  draw  a  picture  of 
the  object  which  it  suggests.  Riddles  and  rhymes  like 
thase  below  may  be  found  in  primers  and  magazines 
edited  for  the  use  of  primary-grade  teachers. 


As  round  as  an  apple. 
Par  deeper  than  a  cup, 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  251 

And  all  the  king's  horses 

Can't  pull  me  up. 

What  am  I?  (A  well) 

(2) 

It  is  golden,  it  is  bright 
And  we  love  its  pretty  light; 
When  it  smiles  down  from  on  high, 
How  the  ice  and  snow  do  fly! 
What  am  I?  (The  spring  sun.) 

(3) 

I  play  out  in  the  woodland 
All  summer  merrily. 
I  swing  from  swaying  branches, 
I  leap  from  tree  to  tree. 

But  when  in  early  autumn, 
The  nuts  are  ripe  and  brown, 
I  go  to  work  in  earnest, 
As  they  come  tumbling  down. 

I  never  think  of  playing, 

But  work  so  steadily 

To  hide  my  winter  store  away 

In  wall  or  hollow  tree. 

What  am  I?  (A  squirrel.) 

SILENT-READING  EXERCISES  BASED  ON   SEAT  WORK 

Some  valuable  silent-reading  exercises  may  be  based 

on  the   children's  seat  work.     This  plan  is  especially 

advised  if  the  teacher  has  several  grades  in  a  single 

room  and  is  compelled  to  give  each  its  share  of  atten- 


252  SILENT  READING 

tion,  thus  having  but  little  time  left  for  supervision  of 
classes  not  reciting.  The  following  exercises  are  sug- 
gestive of  the  sort  of  work  that  may  be  done  in  silent 
reading  under  these  circumstances. 

EXERCISE  XIX:  NURSERY  RHYMES 
The  children's  comprehension  of  poems  and  nursery 
rhymes  found  in  primers  and  first  readers  may  be  meas- 
ured by  having  the  class  read  the  selection  once  rapidly, 
then  graphically  represent  what  was  read.  For  ex- 
ample, first-grade  pupils  may  be  asked  to  read  the  fol- 
lowing poem  and  then  draw  the  picture  which  it  calls 
to  mind. 

When  I  was  down  beside  the  sea, 
A  wooden  spade  they  gave  to  me 

To  dig  the  sandy  shore. 
My  holes  were  empty  like  a  cup, 
In  every  hole  the  sea  came  up 

Till  it  could  come  no  more. 

This  sort  of  exercise  may  be  made  somewhat  more 
difficult  by  having  the  pupils  read  a  poem,  then  use 
colored  pencils  to  represent  graphically  a  number  of 
objects  mentioned  in  it,  according  to  instructions  placed 
on  the  blackboard. 

Humpty  Dumpty  sat  on  a  wall. 

Humpty  Dumpty  had  a  great  fall. 

Not  all  the  king's  horses. 

Not  all  the  king's  men, 

Could  put  Humpty  Dumpty  back  again. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  253 

Directions 

Draw  a  big  egg. 

Draw  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth  on  it. 

Draw  two  legs  on  the  egg  and  color  them  black. 

Draw  a  hat  on  the  top  of  the  egg. 

Color  it  blue. 

Draw  a  wall  for  Humpty  Dumpty  to  sit  on. 

The  above  exercise  may  be  followed  by  others  based 
on  the  same  selection.  For  example,  the  teacher  may 
write  directions  for  drawing  a  picture  of  Humpty 
Dumpty  as  he  fell  from  the  wall. 

EXERCISE  XX:  DRILL  ON  PHRASES  AND  SENTENCES 
From  discarded  primers  or  books  of  equal  difficulty 
cut  phrases,  clauses,  and  short  sentences  found  in  such 
stories  as  "The  Three  Bears,"  "Little  Red  Riding- 
hood,"  "Jack  and  the  Bean  Stalk,"  the  Mother  Goose 
rhymes,  and  others.  Mount  the  passages  on  small 
squares  of  manila  paper,  classify  as  to  difficulty,  place 
from  ten  to  twenty-five  slips  of  equal  difficulty  in  an 
envelope,  and  file  the  sets  of  envelopes  in  a  box. 

Let  the  pupils  use  this  material'  when  they  have  fin- 
ished their  regular  work.  They  should  work  in  pairs, 
one,  playing  "teacher,"  showing  the  cards  to  the  other. 
Each  group  must  begin  with  the  package  of  simplest 
phrases,  and  the  contents  of  each  package  must  be  thor- 
oughly mastered  before  the  next  envelope  is  taken  up. 
The  cards  are  to  be  flashed  for  only  a  short  time  and 
each  package  completed  must  be  constantly  reviewed. 


254  SILENT  READING 

This  exercise  may  be  varied  by  placing  all  the  words, 
phrases,  and  sentences  of  a  single  story  in  one  envelope, 
then  asking  the  pupils  to  place  those  together  in  such 
order  as  to  reproduce  the  story.  Stories  used  for  this 
sort  of  exercise  must,  of  course,  be  very  short. 

EXERCISE  XXI :  PICTURES  AS  ANSWERS 
The  teacher  may  prepare  a  series  of  cards  on  which 
she  writes  or  prints  simple  questions  based  on  some  story 
which  children  have  read  and  with  which  they  are  thor- 
oughly familiar,  for  example,  the  story  of  "Little  Red 
Riding-hood. "  As  a  seat- work  exercise,  children  are 
asked  to  prepare  written  answers  to  the  questions,  or 
to  draw  pictures  that  will  answer  them.  The  following 
questions  are  suggestive  of  the  kind  that  may  be  used. 

Where  was  Little  Red  Riding-hood  going! 

Whom  did  she  meet! 

Was  the  wolf  her  friend? 

What  did  the  wolf  want? 

Who  first  reached  the  grandmother's  cottage? 

Pupils  will  have  no  difficulty  in  answering  such  ques- 
tions, as  all  needed  words  appear  on  the  cards  displayed 
before  the  clan. 

A  similar  exercise  consists  in  placing  the  following 
rhyme  on  the  blackboard  and  asking  the  children  to 
draw  and  color  the  picture  which  the  lines  call  to  mind. 

Robin,  he, 
On  a  tree. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  255 

Saw  ripe  cherries, 
One,  two,  three. 

The  project  work  done  by  second-grade  pupils  may 
often  be  made  the  basis  for  interesting  silent-reading 
exercises  and  effective  comprehension  drills.  Pupils 
of  a  class  that  was  studying  Indian  life  were  making 
miniature  wigwams  out  of  sticks  and  brown  paper.  By 
writing  the  following  questions  on  the  blackboard,  and 
giving  no  further  directions,  the  teacher  conducted  a 
profitable  exercise  in  hand  work  and  in  silent  reading 
at  the  same  time. 

Tie  three  sticks  together. 
Make  them  stand  on  your  desk. 
_    Take  your  brown  paper.     Cut  it  to  make  a  covering 

for  the  wigwam. 

Draw  or  paint  some  Indian  pictures  on  the  covering. 
Fasten  the  covering  around  the  sticks. 
Be  sure  to  leave  a  door. 
Turn  the  flaps  back. 

EXERCISE  XXII :  CONSTRUCTION  WORK 
Construction  work  in  paper  cutting  and  drawing  may 
be  successfully  related  to  the  work  in  silent  reading  as 
soon  as  the  pupils  pass  the  earlier  stages  in  which  they 
learn  to  use  their  tools.  When  the  experimental  work 
is  completed  and  they  begin  to  express  their  own  ideas 
in  their  own  way,  they  usually  come  to  the  teacher  for 
ideas  and  suggestions  that  will  help  them  to  make  their 
work  look  better.  Such  suggestions  may  be  given  as 
instructions  written  on  the  blackboard.  The  following 


256  SILENT  READING 

instructions  were  displayed  before  a  first-grade  class  to 
guide  them  in  making  candy  boxes  for  a  school  enter- 
prise. 

Fold  the  paper  to  make  sixteen  squares. 
Make  two  cuts  on  each  end,  like  this.     (The  black- 
board drawing  showed  the  cuts.) 
Fold  the  ends'  in  so  as  to  make  a  box. 
Paste  the  ends. 

Make  a  cover  in  the  same  way. 
Put  the  cover  on  the  box. 

A  second-grade  class  that  had  read  the  story  of  "Little 
Black  Sambo "  followed  the  directions  given  b«low  to 
cut  a  picture  of  Sambo  from  colored  paper.  Before  the 
instructions  for  cutting  were  shown  to  the  pupils,  they 
answered  the  following  questions  which  were  written  on 
the  blackboard. 

Who  was  Little  Black  Sambo? 

What  color  was  his  coat? 

What  was  the  color  of  his  trousers? 

What  did  he  have  on  his  feet? 

Did  he  wear  a  hat? 

What  did  he  carry  in  his  hands? 

After  the  pupils  had  answered  those  questions,  each 
was  given  scissors  and  sheets  of  colored  paper,  and  the 
following  questions  were  displayed  on  the  blackboard. 

Cut  out  Little  Black  Sambo.     Make  him  as  tall  as 

your  paper  will  let  you. 
Cut  out  the  red  coat. 
Cut  out  the  blue  trousers. 
Paste  the  coat  and  trousers  on  him. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  EXERCISES  257 

Cut  out  his  purple  shoes.     Paste  them  on  his  feet. 
Cut  out  the  green  umbrella.     Make  the  handle  long 

enough. 
Paste  it  where  you  think  it  should  go. 

EXERCISE  XXIII :  A  BULLETIN  BOARD 
Much  incidental  work  in  silent  reading  may  be  done 
by  using  a  bulletin  board  on  which  announcements  of 
interest  to  the  whole  class  may  be  pasted  daily.  The 
day  of  the  week  and  the  date  should  be  conspicuously 
displayed  at  the  top  of  the  board.  The  following  are 
typical  of  the  kind  of  announcements  that  may  be  used. 

Tomorrow  is  Fire  Prevention  Day.  We  are  going 
to  visit  the  fire  hall. 

Today  is  Betty's  birthday. 

We  are  going  to  have  visitors  today. 

We  pack  our  Red  Cross  Christmas  boxes  next  Friday. 

Don't  forget  your  gifts. 

Thursday  is  Thanksgiving  Day.  We  will  have  a  holi- 
day. 

Results  versus  effort.  The  preparation  of  the  ex- 
ercises suggested  in  this  chapter,  and  the  arrangement 
and  collection  of  suitable  materials,  make  a  considerable 
demand  on  the  teacher's  time.  Such  efforts  are  well 
repaid,  however,  by  the  superior  quality  of  the  results 
obtained. 

SUMMARY 

1.  Practically  all  first  and  second-grade  lessons  in  hygiene, 
home  geography,  morals,  games,  social  activities,  cloth- 
ing, foods,  nature  study,  language,  field  trips,  and  hand- 


258  SILENT  READING 

work  projects  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  silent-reading 
drills  and  exercises. 

2.  If  materials  chosen  for  this  work  are  in  written  form, 
they  should  be  used  as  the  basis  of  silent-reading  study 
lessons  before  the  drill  work  is  begun. 

3.  After  pupils  have  read  the  material  silently  they  should 
discuss  it  in  class. 

4.  Silent-reading  drills  should  be  based  on  the  materials 
read  and   on   the  class   discussion  that  follows. 

5.  Directions  for  the  execution  of  projects  and  seat- work 
activities  may  be  made  the  basis  of  silent-reading  lessons 
and  drills. 

6.  The  fact  that  silent  reading  is  used  for  drills  and  re- 
view further  insures  comprehension  and  retention. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Burke,  A.  "First-grade  materials  and  stimuli."  Teachers 
College  Record,  Vol.  20,  Columbia  University  Press,  New 
York  City,  1919. 

Finley,  Ida  E.  Blackboard  Work  in  Reading.  Benj.  H. 
Sanborn  and  Company,  Chicago,  1913. 

Heller,  Regina  and  Courtis,  S.  A.  "Exercises  developed  at 
Detroit  for  making  reading  function."  The  Twentieth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Edu- 
cation: Part  JL  Public  School  Publishing  Company, 
Bloomington,  Illinois,  1921. 

Krackowizer,  Alice  M.  Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades. 
J.  B.  Lippincott  and  Company,  Philadelphia,  1919. 

Moore,  A.  E.  "The  use  of  children's  initiative  in  beginning 
reading."  Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  17,  Columbia 
University  Press,  New  York  City,  1916. 

"Silent-reading  exercises  developed  at  Denver,  Cedar  Rapids, 
Racine,  and  Iowa  City."  The  Twentieth,  Yearbook  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  II. 
Public  School  Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois, 
1921. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SILENT  READING  IN  GRADES  III  AND  IV 

Training*  pupils  to  read  silently.  Teachers  who  want 
to  obtain  the  best  results  from  their  teaching  of  reading 
must  determine  what  methods  and  devices  will  most 
economically  train  pupils  to  concentrate  on  what  they 
read,  and  to  read  rapidly  with  a  reasonable  degree  of 
comprehension.  They  must  encourage  pupils  to  read  all 
their  lessons  according  to  the  plan  used  during  the  read- 
ing recitation.  They  should  use  many  reading  periods 
for  helping  pupils  discover  the  best  way  to  develop  good 
reading  habits.  They  must  realize  that  the  greatest 
service  they  can  render  is  so  to  teach  reading  that  the 
skills  and  attitudes  which  pupils  develop  in  the  reading 
class  will  transfer  to  all  their  other  work. 

In  so  far  as  they  can,  teachers  must  inspire  pupils  to 
want  to  become  rapid  and  accurate  readers.  They  must 
help  pupils  by  providing  much  interesting  reading  ma- 
terial suitable  for  each  grade,  and  by  using  material 
found  outside  of  textbooks  as  a  basis  for  discussion  dur- 
ing the  reading  recitation  and  the  oral-English  period. 

Aside  from  this  definite  training  in  silent  reading, 
there  are  other  important  factors  which  affect  the  estab- 
lishment of  economical  study  habits.  The  child's  mental 

259 


260  SILENT  READING 

endowment,  health,  experiences,  and  environment  must 
not  be  ignored.  Although  a  pupil's  progress  in  reading 
depends  largely  upon  his  mental  capacity  and  the  effort 
that  he  puts  forth,  it  may  be  greatly  increased  by  train-, 
ing  him  in  habits  of  concentration,  organization,  accur- 
acy, and  rapidity.  Many  teachers  say  that  their  pupils 
can  not  concentrate.  Perhaps  they  hold  that  opinion 
because  they  have  stressed  neither  the  ideal  nor  the 
training  necessary  to  enable  children  to  do  those  things 
essential  to  concentration. 

General  principles  to  be  observed.  The  general 
principles  to  be  observed  in  teaching  reading  to  pupils 
of  the  third  and  fourth  grades  are  practically  the  same 
as  those  used  in  the  two  lower  grades.  The  outstanding 
difference  is  that  word  drill  and  phonic  drill  may  largely 
be  dispensed  with,  and  that  greater  emphasis  must  be 
placed  upon  the  quantity  and  variety  of  material  read. 
Progress  in  silent  reading  will  be  assured  if  the  teacher 
establishes  a  correct  attitude  toward  reading,  if  she 
carefully  uses  devices  and  drills  to  train  pupils  in 
effective  methods  of  study,  and  if  she  requires  much 
reading  outside  the  regular  class  work. 

The  pupil's  attitude  toward  reading  is  very  important. 
If  he  thinks  of  the  lesson  as  containing  material  with 
which  he  should  become  familiar,  he  will  accomplish 
much  more.  Psychology  has  shown  the  influence  of 
the  will  when  doing  a  thing.  If  the  pupil  desires  to 
become  a  proficient  reader,  the  methods  employed  dur- 
ing the  class  period  will  be  much  more  effective. 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  261 

The  teacher  >s  problem  is  to  make  class  training  func- 
tion as  a  general  reading  habit.  She  must  provide  pupils 
with  much  outside  reading  material  and  encourage  and 
require  them  to  use  it.  She  must  keep  the  ideals  of 
speed  and  concentration  constantly  before  the  class,  and 
she  must  help  pupils  acquire  those  abilities. 

Types  of  reading  ability.  The  teacher  of  silent 
reading  usually  finds  three  types  of  readers  in  each 
class,  —  rapid,  medium-rate,  and  slow.  By  grouping  the 
pupils  on  the  basis  of  speed  she  can  expedite  her  work 
and  make  it  more  effective.  Whenever  there  is  a  wide 
difference  in  the  abilities  of  pupils,  the  teacher  should 
form  at  least  two  groups. 

The  difference  in  reading  rate  of  members  of  the  same 
class  makes  it  difficult  to  provide  exercises  which  are  of 
benefit  to  all.  Slow  readers  are  likely  not  to  try  because 
they  realize  the  futility  of  competing  against  more  gifted 
classmates;  rapid  readers,  not  being  compelled  to  work 
under  pressure,  tend  to  become  lazy.  Both  groups  are 
injured.  To  prevent  this  condition,  and  to  attain  maxi- 
mum results  from  pupils  of  each  group,  the  teacher  must 
use  plans  specially  designed  to  accomplish  those  ends. 
Such  plans  are  suggested  on  the  following  pages. 

Need  for  individual  treatment.  Teachers  often  find 
pupils  whose  difficulties  need  personal  attention.  Chil- 
dren who  have  much  difficulty  in  learning  to  read  are 
often  advanced  from  grade  to  grade  without  having  their 
needs  carefully  studied.  If  such  pupils  are  discovered, 
the  teacher  should  endeavor  to  determine  the  difficulty, 


262  SILENT  READING 

and  having  done  so  she  should  give  the  pupil  such  assist- 
ance as  will  enable  him  to  work  with  the  group.  She 
should  point  out  the  handicaps  entailed  by  bad  reading 
habits,  and  she  should  suggest  remedial  measures. 

If  pupils  who  pronounce  audibly  or  whisper  when  they 
read  are  allowed  to  persist  in  those  habits,  they  will 
probably  never  become  rapid  readers  because  they  read 
only  one  word  at  a  time.  The  teacher  can  help  such 
children  overcome  those  habits  by  having  them  place  the 
finger  on  the  lips  as  a  check,  whenever  they  observe  that 
they  are  moving  the  lips.  Repeated  suggestions  will  also 
help  pupils  to  refrain  from  using  the  finger  to  indicate 
the  words  being  read,  another  pernicious  habit.  The 
names  of  pupils  who  succeed  in  controlling  such  ten- 
dencies may  be  placed  on  honor  rolls  as  an  incentive  to 
continued  effort. 

Types  of  silent-reading  material.  Pupils  in  third 
and  fourth-grade  silent-reading  classes  may  use  the  sub- 
ject-matter contained  in  the  ordinary  school  readers, 
geographical  primers,  historical  and  biographical 
sketches,  simple  accounts  of  civic  and  industrial  activi- 
ties, material  relating  to  class  projects  such  as  making  a 
gnrden.  sewing,  etc.,  and  such  subject-matter  as  may  be 
found  in  pamphlets  dealing  with  "The  Child's  .Food." 
"Fresh  Air/'  "Penny  Savings,"  ami  like  topics.  Lists 
of  books  and  pamphlets  suitable  for  this  work  may  be 
found  in  the  Appendix  (pages  357-381). 

How  to  use  silent-reading  material.  The  kinds  of 
material  listed  above  may  be  used  either  for  purposes  of 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR 


263 


class  reading  and  discussion,  or  as  the  basis  of  drill  exer- 
cises. Not  every  reading  period,  however,  should  be 
devoted  to  strenuous,  intensive  speed  and  comprehension 
drills.  Although  such  exercises  are  given  prominence  in 
the  specimen  lessons  which  follow,  teachers  should  not 
conclude  that  that  phase  of  instruction  is  most  import- 
ant. Such  exercises  have  been  suggested  only  because 
they  are  usually  badly  needed. 

Class  discussion  of  silent  reading.  Reading  and 
discussing  the  good  literature  to  be  found  in  school  read- 
ers and  choice  children's  books  is  not  beyond  the  ability 
of  third  and  fourth-grade  pupils.  Such  discussion  is  of 
marked  social  value.  Reading  such  literature  inspires 
children  to  be  better  and  to  do  more,  and  gives  them  a 
better  conception  of  their  relationship  to  one  another. 
In  all  such  discussion,  however,  moralizing  must  be  care- 
fully avoided.  Let  the  pupils  themselves  determine  the 
motives  of  the  characters  and  call  attention  to  the  conse- 
quences of  various  courses  of  action.  Encourage  pupils 
to  compare  and  contrast  the  story's  characters  and  epi- 
sodes with  others  with  which  they  are  familiar.  Encour- 
age them  to  enliven  the  discussion  with  accounts  of  their 
own  experiences,  in  so  far  as  those  bear  upon  the  topic. 
The  primary  aim  of  all  this  work  is  to  have  pupils  think, 
estimate,  judge,  and  infer. 

The  type  study  of  "  Queen  Mab"  presented  below 
gives  an  idea  of  the  method  that  teachers  may  use  to 
make  a  silent-reading  assignment  the  basis  for  a  class 
discussion.  In  this  work  the  pupils  should  use  about 


264  SILENT  READING 

half  the  recitation  period  for  reading  the  selection 
Silently,  merely  to  experience  the  joy  of  reading.  The 
remainder  of  the  time  may  then  be  used  for  discussion. 
Pupils  should  be  led  to  talk  about  the  characters  and 
leading  episodes  of  the  selection,  to  point  out  the  climax 
of  the  story,  and  to  select  the  most  beautiful  or  dramatic 
parts.  They  should  be  asked  to  explain  why  they  like 
the  story,  and  to  tell  which  part  most  appeals  to  them. 
Several  children  should  orally  read  the  paragraph  that 
answers  the  questions  being  discussed.  That  sort  of  oral 
reading  is  pupil-motivated.  It  tends  to  be  well  done 
because  pupils  try  to  read  so  as  to  convince  the  class 
audience.  During  the  last  few  minutes  of  the  reading 
period  teacher  and  pupils  may  select  the  main  points 
of  the  lesson,  then  make  an  outline  or  summary  of  the 
whole.  At  times  pupils  should  indicate  the  chief  thought 
in  the  lesson  and  discuss  it  in  its  relation  to  all  the  other 
ideas. 

TYPE  STUDY:    A  POEM 
Queen  Mab1 

A  little  fairy  comes  at  night, 
Her  eyes  are  blue,  her  hair  is  brown. 

With  silver  spots  upon  her  wings. 
And  from  the  moon  she  flutters  down. 

She  has  a  little  silver  wand, 
And  when  a  good  child  goes  to  bed, 

^rom    the   Story   Hour   Renders:   Book  Three   published    by   the 
American    Book    Company.    Cincinnati. 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  265 

She  waves  her  hand  from  right  to  left, 
And  makes  a  circle  round  its  head. 

And  then  it  dreams  of  pleasant  things  — 
Of  fountains  filled  with  fairy  fish, 

And  trees  that  bear  delicious  fruit, 
And  bow  their  branches  at  a  wish. 

Of  arbors  filled  with  dainty  scents 
From  lovely  flowers  that  never  fade; 

Bright  flies  that  glitter  in  the  sun, 
And  glowworms  shining  in  the  shade. 

And  talking  birds  with  gifted  tongues, 
For  singing  songs  and  telling  tales, 

And  pretty  dwarfs  to  show  the  way 
Through  fairy  hills  and  fairy  dales. 

But  when  a  bad  child  goes  to  bed, 
From  left  to  right  she  weaves  her  rings, 

And  then  it  dreams  all  through  the  night 
Of  ugly,  horrid  things! 

Then  lions  come  with  glaring  eyes, 
And  tigers  growl,  a  dreadful  noise, 

And  ogres  .draw  their  cruel  knives, 
To  shed  the  blood  of  girls  and  boys. 

Then  stormy  waves  rush  on  to  drown, 
Or  raging  flames  come  scorching  round. 

Fierce  dragons  hover  in  the  air. 

And  serpents  crawl  along  the  ground. 

Then  wicked  children  wake  and  weep. 
And  wish  the  long  black  gloom  away; 


266  SILENT  READING 

But  good  ones  love  the  dark,  and  find 
The  night  as  pleasant  as  the  day. 

I.  During  the  study  period  the  children  should 
read  the  entire  poem.  If  they  wish,  they  should 
read  it  more  than  once.  Children  are  entitled 
to  some  of  the  satisfaction  that  comes  from  self- 
directed  activity.  They  must  have  abundant 
opportunity  to  practice,  if  they  are  ever  to  learn 
to  read  on  their  own  initiative  or  merely  for 
pleasure  and  profit. 

II.  Write  the  following  questions  on  the  blackboard 
and  ask  the  pupils  to  use  the  silent-reading  work 
as  a  preparation  for  answering  them. 

1.  What  do  you  know  about  the  fairy? 

2.  Just  what  does  the  fairy  do  when  she  comes 

to  the  bedside  of  a  good  child? 

3.  What    good    things    does   the   child    dream 

about? 

4.  How  many  stanzas  tell  of  those  good  things? 

5.  How  does  the  fairy  wave  her  wand  over  a 

good  child?    How  does  she  wave  it  over  a 
bad  one? 

6.  Tell,  in  order,  all  the  things  that  a  bad  child 

dreams  about.    How  many  lines  tell  of  the 
bad  things? 

7.  What  difference  does  this  make  to  children 

when  they  are  in  the  dark? 

8.  Into  how  many  parts  is  this  story  divided? 

III.    Have  a  different  pupil  read  each  of  the  parts 
aloud. 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  267 

TYPE  STUDY:    A  PROSE  SELECTION 
Narcissus1 

(I)2 

On  day  Narcissus  had  been  hunting  in  the  forest  till 
he  was  tired  and  thirsty.  He  came  to  a  fountain  where 
the  water  was  as  clear  as  crystal.  The  rocks  sheltered 
it  from  the  sun,  the  grass  grew  fresh  around  it,  and 
not  a  leaf  fell  to  disturb  the  surface. 

(II) 

The  handsome  youth  stooped  to  drink  and  saw  his 
image  in  the  water.  He  did  not  know  it  as  himself, 
but  thought  it  was  some  beautiful  water-nymph  who 
lived  in  the  fountains.  He  gazed  with  pleasure  at  the 
bright  eyes  and  curly  locks,  the  rounded  cheeks  and 
parting  lips.  He  forgot  his  hunt.  He  forgot  everything. 
He  could  only  gaze  at  his  own  image. 

(HI) 

All  day  long  he  begged  the  beautiful  creature  to 
come  out  of  the  water.  More  than  once  he  plunged 
into  the  fountain  to  meet  it,  but  the  moment  he  touched 
the  water  the  image  disappeared.  Then  he  talked  to  it. 
1  'Beautiful  nymph,"  he  would  say,  "why  do  you  shun 
me?  You  smile  at  me,  and  when  I  stretch  forth  my 
arm,  you  do  the  same.  Will  you  not  come  to  me?" 
The  lips  parted,  but  no  sound  came  forth. 

(IV) 

Day  after  day,  and  night  after  night,  he  sat  on  the 
banks  and  gazed  at  the  image.  He  saw  the  face  in 
the  water  grow  pale,  and  his  own  face  grew  white,  and 

xThis  selection  appears  in  the  Fourth  Reader  of  the  Free  and 
Treadwell  Reading-Literature  Series  published  by  Row.  Peter- 
son and  Company,  Chicago. 

3These  subdivisions,  (I),  (II),  (III),  and  (IV),  are  merely 
for  convenience  in  referring  to  the  questions  based  on  this  selec- 
tion. They  do  not,  of  course,  appear  in  the  textbook. 


268  SILENT  READING 

his  yellow  hair  fell  over  his  hollow  cheeks.  At  last 
his  breath  floated  away  and  there,  instead  of  a  beau- 
tiful nymph,  stood  a  flower,  gazing  with  bent  head  into 
the  crystal  fountain.  In  his  memory  the  flower  bears 
his  name. 

I.  Let  the  pupils  read  this  story  for  pleasure  dur- 
ing a  study  period.     Do  not  question  them  or 
give  them  any  directions. 

II.  During  the  study  period,  or  a  continuation  of 
it,  pupils  should  prepare  to  answer  the  follow- 
ing  questions: 

1.  How  many  parts  does  this  story  have? 

2.  What  is  told  in  the  first  part!     (The  an- 

swers of  the  pupils  should  include  all  the 
facts  in  proper  sequence.) 

3.  Why  does  the  story  tell  that  the  fountain 

was  clear?    sheltered  from  the  sun?    sur- 
rounded by  grass?    undisturbed? 

4.  What  can  you  call  this  part  of  the  story? 

(The,  introduction.) 

5.  Relate  the  second  part  of  the  story. 

6.  Had  the  youth  ever  used  a  mirror? 

7.  What  expressions  of  the  story  help  us  to 

picture  this  boy? 

8.  What  was  the  effect  of  his  image  on  him? 

9.  Tell  the  third  part  of  the  story  in  detail. 

10.  Why  did  the  image  disappear  when  the  boy 

touched  the  water? 

11.  How  do  you   account  for  the  boy's  smile? 

12.  Explain:     "The  lips  parted,  but  no  sound 

camp  forth." 

13.  What  can  you  call  the  fourth  part  of  the 

story?     (The  condusion.) 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  269 

14.  How  do  you  account  for  the  boy's  seeing 

his  image  at  night? 

15.  Why  did  the  face  in  the  water  grow  pale? 

16.  Explain :  ' '  his  breath  floated  away ; "  "  gazing 

with  bent  head." 

17.  Which   part  of  the  story  do  you   consider 

most  interesting?     At  what  point  do  you 

become  less  interested? 

TIT.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  work  outlined  above, 
the  story  should  be  read  by  four  pupils,  each 
of  whom  reads  one  of  the  parts.  One  pupil 
may  then  tell  the  entire  story. 

Study  lessons  in  geography.  History  and  geography 
assignments  furnish  a  good  opportunity  for  teaching 
pupils  how  to  study  effectively.  The  factual  nature  of 
the  material  makes  it  an  easy  matter  to  test  children's 
comprehension  of  what  they  have  read.  That  should,  of 
course,  be  done. 

Teachers  too  often  make  assignments  merely  by  say- 
ing, "Read  from  page  so  and  so  to  page  this  or  that." 
The  pupils  do  as  they  are  directed,  but  when  they  come 
to  class  they  either  are  unable  to  tell  what  they  have 
read,  or  they  cannot  discriminate  among  the  many  facts 
that  they  have  acquired.  This  is  a  wrong  state  of  affairs 
which  may  be  remedied  even  in  the  third  grade.  The 
teacher  can  teach  pupils  of  that  grade  that  studying  is 
really  a  process  of  selecting  and  evaluating.  Such 
instruction  should  be  given  by  means  of  a  proper  assign- 
ment. 

The    following  type   study   is   based   on    a  selection 


270  SILENT  READING 

entitled  "Leather  and  Its  Uses."1  Preceding  the  silent 
reading  of  the  lesson  the  teacher  had  the  class  discuss 
the  topic.  The  children  were  asked  to  enumerate  the 
articles  made  of  leather  which  might  be  found  in  the 
schoolroom,  for  example,  shoes,  coats,  pencil  cases,  chair 
seats,  etc.  They  were  asked  to  tell  what  they  knew 
about  leather,  to  name  the  different  kinds,  to  tell  where 
and  how  it  is  obtained,  and  how  prepared  for  use.  Fol- 
lowing that,  the  teacher  displayed  a  list  of  questions  on 
the  blackboard,  explained  that  the  answers  to  them 
might  be  found  in  the  geography  lesson,  and  asked  the 
children  to  read  the  questions  and  then  the  geography 
aassignment.  They  were  directed  to  answer  as  many 
questions  as  possible  when  they  had  finished  their  read- 
ing, and  to  refer  to  the  textbook  for  the  answers  they 
could  not  remember. 

TYPE  STUDY:    A  GEOGRAPHY  LESSON 
Leather  and  Its  Uses 

The  coats  that  are  worn  by  cattle,  sheep,  and  other 
animals  are  called  skins.  After  these  skins  have  been 
tanned,  they  are  called  leather. 

Many  articles  of  clothing  are  made  of  leather.  Let 
us  name  some  of  them.  Boots,  shoes,  coats,  caps,  aprons, 
belts,  gloves,  and  mittens  are  the  most  important.  Have 
you  ever  seen  anyone  wearing  an  apron  of  leather? 

Besides  those  of  sheep  and  cattle,  the  skins  of  goats, 
deer,  horses,  dogs,  kangaroos,  alligators,  and  of  some 
other  animals  are  made  into  leather.  Calfskin  makes 

'This  extract  Is  taken  from  L.  F.  Chamberlain's  How  We  Are 
Clothed  (pp.  99-103),  published  by  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City. 


GRADES  THREE  AND  POUR  271 

the  best  shoes  for  men  and  boys.  Only  the  skin  from 
the  under  side  of  an  alligator's  body  can  be  used.  Can 
you  tell  why? 

A  place  where  skins  are  tanned  is  called  a  tannery. 
An  acid  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  oak,  hemlock, 
and  some  other  trees  is  much  used  in  tanning.  On 
this  account  tanneries  are  often  found  where  these 
trees  grow  in  abundance.  There  are  other  things 
also  that  are  used  in  tanning. 

Let  us  visit  a  tannery  and  see  how  the  work  is 
done.  Here  are  great  quantities  of  skins  or  hides. 
Some  of  them  have  come  from  the  cities  where  large 
numbers  of  animals  are  killed  for  food.  Can  you  name 
any  of  these  cities?  Some  come  from  Mexico  and 
some  from  the  plains  of  South  America. 

The  hides  are  placed  in  large  vats  partly  filled  with 
a  liquid  containing  lime.  This  liquid  loosens  the  hair, 
which  is  afterward  scraped  off  with  a  blunt  instru- 
ment. The  lime  is  now  washed  off  by  throwing  the 
hides  into  the  water.  Here  is  another  man  scraping 
the  skins.  He  is  removing  bits  of  flesh  that  were  left 
clinging  to  them. 

You  have  often  noticed  the  pores  in  the  skin  on 
the  back  of  your  hand.  The  perspiration  comes 
through  the  pores.  There  are  pores  in  the  skins  of  the 
lower  animals,  too.  In  order  to  open  the  pores  of 
the  skins,  so  that  the  tannic  acid  may  enter  and  tan 
them,  the  skins  are  soaked  in  a  certain  liquid. 

If  you  have  ever  had  a  blister  on  your  hand,  you 
have  noticed  that  the  skin  consists  of  two  layers.  The 
skin  of  the  lower  animals  consists  of  two  layers  also. 
The  inner  layer,  or  derma,  is  made  up  partly  of  a 
jellylike  substance.  Tanning  hardens  this  and  makes 
the  leather  wear  well.  If  it  were  not  for  the  tanning, 
shoes  made  of  leather  would  not  be  very  valuable, 
for  they  would  soon  wear  out.  After  the  skins  have 
been  dried,  they  are  pressed  between  great  rollers 


272  SILENT  READING 

to  make  them  smooth.  A  hundred  years  ago  tanning 
hides  required  many  months.  Now  it  is  done  much 
more  quickly. 

Shoes  and  other  things  made  of  leather  are  of  dif- 
ferent colors.  This  is  because  the  leather  is  colored. 
It  is  not  dyed  as  cloth  is,  but  the  color  is  put. on  with 
a  brush. 

Kid  gloves  are  made  from  the  skins  of  young  goats 
and  lambs. 

Questions 

1.  What    is    the    difference    between    skins    and 

leather? 

2.  Who  wears  a  leather  apron? 

3.  What  is  the  best  skin  to  use  for  boys'  shoes? 

4.  Why  are  tanneries  often  found  near  oak  or  hem- 

lock groves? 

5.  Why  are  the  hides  placed  in  lime? 

6.  What  acid  is  used  to  tan  leather? 

7.  What  is  the  inner  layer  of  skin  like? 

8.  What  does  tanning  do  to  it? 

9.  How  is  the  leather  colored? 

10.  How  is  cloth  colored? 

11.  What  is  made  from  the  skin  of  young  lambs? 

Another  effective  way  to  encourage  discriminating 
reading  is  to  allow  pupils  to  read  a  selection  in  any  way 
they  wish,  first  informing  them  that  they  will  be  expected 
to  answer  a  list  of  questions  when  they  have  finished. 
The  questions  used  should  be  such  as  may  be  answered 
in  few  words.  Pupils  should  write  the  answers  as  they 
are  read,  then  exchange  papers  for  correction.  This  is 
a  rapid  method  of  handling  such  work ;  so  done,  it  may 
be  finished  in  a  few  minutes. 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  273 

After  pupils  have  had  considerable  practice  in  reading 
for  the  purpose  of  finding  answers  to  questions,  they 
may  be  allowed  to  read  a  selection  with  a  view  to  making 
their  own  list  of  questions.  These  questions  should  be 
freely  criticised  by  the  class,  so  that  all  may  be  assured 
that  the  main  ideas  have  not  been  overlooked. 

Continuous  questioning.  The  continuous  question 
method  may  be  used  to  develop  purposeful  reading 
habits.  Pupils  should  be  instructed  to  open  their  books 
at  a  given  page,  but  to  do  no  reading  until  the  teacher 
announces  the  signal.  The  latter  should  explain  that 
she  will  ask  a  question  about  every  thirty  seconds,  and 
that  the  pupils  are  to  find  the  answers  as  they  read. 
Pupils  should  read  as  rapidly  as  possible,  keeping  as  far 
ahead  of  the  teacher  as  they  can.  At  the  end  of  two 
minutes  the  teacher  calls  time,  each  child  marks  the  last 
word  he  read,  and  the  class  discussion  follows.  The 
teacher's  rate  of  questioning  should  correspond  to  the 
reading  rate  of  the  pupils.  In  such  drill  exercises,  pupils 
of  about  the  same  reading  ability  should  be  grouped 
together. 

Class-project  lessons.  Project  work  of  almost  any 
kind  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  silent-reading  work  in 
the  third  and  fourth  grades.  The  teacher  should  care- 
fully prepare  her  questions  and  directions  so  as  to  avoid 
any  misunderstanding  by  the  pupils.  The  questions 
should  always  be  written  on  the  blackboard  before  the 
class  period  begins.  They  may  be  covered  if  it  is  in- 
advisable for  the  pupils  to  see  them  in  advance. 


274 


SILENT  READING 


Charting  results  of  comprehension  tests.  Children 
take  great  interest  in  making  charts  that  show  the  results 
of  comprehension  tests,  whether  such  charts  indicate  the 
scores  of  an  entire  class  or  of  a  single  pupil.  Individual 
charts  showing  weekly  progress  are  very  stimulating. 


FIGURE  4 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  275 

The  pupils  should  be  allowed  to  ask  questions,  if  they 
do  not  understand  the  teacher's  directions  for  prepar- 
ing these  charts,  but  since  comprehension  is  tested  by 
the  ability  to  interpret,  it  is  well  to  encourage  them  to 
be  independent  and  self-reliant.  After  a  little  practice, 
pupils  learn  to  follow  directions  accurately  and  to  make 
very  neat  charts.  (See  the  specimen  chart  on  page  274.) 
The  following  directions  were  given  to  a  fourth-grade 
class  which  was  to  chart  the  results  of  a  comprehension 
test  in  silent  reading.  The  teacher  had  already  con- 
structed some  charts  on  the  blackboard  and  on  large 
sheets  of  charting  paper,  as  an  introduction  to  the  work 
that  the  pupils  were  to  do  independently.  Each  pupil 
was  supplied  with  a  sheet  of  charting  paper  ruled  in 
half-inch  squares,  each  of  those  containing  twenty-five 
smaller  squares.  They  used  soft  colored  crayons  to 
mark  their  charts.  "When  all  was  in  readiness  to  begin, 
the  following  questions  written  on  the  blackboard  were 
displayed,  and  the  children  were  asked  to  follow  them. 

1.  Yesterday  we  took  a  silent-reading  test.    Today 

we  shall  chart  the  results. 

2.  A  colored  column  will   represent  each  pupil's 

score. 

3.  Make    each   column   three   small   squares  wide. 

Leave  a  space  two  small  squares  wide  between 
columns. 

4.  Mark  off  one  small  square  of  height  for  every 

point  that  a  pupil  made. 

5.  The  height  of  a  column  will  indicate  the  pupil's 

score  in  points. 


276  SILENT  READING 

6.  Print  the  pupil's  initials  below  the  column  that 

indicates  his  score. 

7.  If  you  had  made  a  perfect  score  your  grade 

would  have  been  60. 

8.  The  following  scores  were  made: 

Earnest  P.  22 

Esther  W.  26 

Jack  L.  31 

Evelyn  C.  34 

Olive  B.  38 

Fred  C.  45 

Mabel  F.  49 

Bruce  G.  49 

Roy  S.  52 

Tiara  M.  54 

9.  At  the  left-hand  side,  start  at  the  bottom  and 

go  up  along  the  margin,  numbering  the  small 
squares  by  5's  so  that  it  will  be  easier  to 
count  them  off. 

10.  Draw  a  column  5  squares  wide  and  60  squares 

high.  That  will  show  what  a  perfect  score 
looks  like.  Color  the  column  bright  red. 
Print  "Perfect  Score"  very  neatly  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  column. 

11.  Color  all  other  columns  blue.     Leave  a  space 

of  five  small  squares,  then  draw  a  column  to 
represent  Earnest's  score.  Be  sure  to  make 
it  22  squares  high  and  3  squares  wide.  Place 
Earnest's  initials,  "E.  P.,"  at  the  bottom. 

12.  Now  make  the  other  nine  columns,  then  let  us 

see  whose  chart  looks  best. 

13.  You  must  always  make  a  chart  so  that  anybody 

can  read  it  and  interpret  it.    Let  us  label  ours. 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  277 

At  the  top  of  your  paper  print  "Comprehen- 
sion Scores  in  Silent  Reading:     Grade  IV." 

Organizing-  the  lesson.  In  addition  to  the  lesson 
plans  that  incidentally  give  training  in  organization,  the 
teacher  should  conduct  special  drills  which  will  train 
pupils  to  organize.  Upper-grade  and  high-school  teach- 
ers realize  that  pupils  lack  the  ability  to  organize,  and 
that  they  are  handicapped  in  consequence.  Often,  how- 
ever, they  are  not  inclined  to  give  pupils  much  help  in 
organization  because  it  is  claimed  that  such  educational 
spoon  feeding  makes  children  dependent  on  the  teacher. 
This  is  hardly  the  case,  but  if  the  teacher  has  any  such 
fear  she  may  vary  the  exercises  designed  to  teach  lesson 
organization  so  that  considerable  demand  is  sure  to  be 
made  on  the  pupils. 

There  are  many  devices  which  may  be  used  to  train 
children  in  lesson  organization.  The  teacher  may  require 
pupils  to  relate  a  story  which  they  have  just  read,  the 
class  checking  the  accuracy  of  the  oral  reproduction. 
Problem  assignments  are  effective.  In  making  a  fourth- 
grade  assignment  on  some  subject,  for  example,  on  "Cot- 
ton," the  teacher  may  explain  in  advance  that  the  lesson 
discusses  certain  main  topics,  among  them,  the  source  of 
the  cotton  supply  and  the  method  of  producing  the  crop. 
In  the  following  day's  discussion  the  teacher  should 
insist  that  each  child's  organization  of  the  lesson  be 
based  on  those  two  topics.  A  third  plan  for  drill  in 
lesson  organization  is  to  ask  pupils  to  read  the  entire 


278  SILENT  READING 

lesson,  decide  on  two  or  three  main  points  of  the  assign- 
ment, then  outline  the  whole  as  a  class  exercise. 

Training  pupils  to  retain.  Helping  pupils  to  retain 
what  they  read  presents  serious  difficulties  even  to  the 
best  teachers.  Every  scientific  study  including  a  de- 
layed-recall  test  has  shown  that  even  within  a  week's 
time  children  forget  much  of  what  they  read.  Such 
studies  indicate  that  frequent  reviews  of  essential  topics 
included  in  an  assignment  will  aid  children  to  retain. 

Careful  and  thorough  lesson  organization  helps  pupils 
to  retain  lesson  content,  because  making  a  logical,  well- 
organized  outline  enables  them  to  see  parts  in  their 
relation  to  the  whole.  A  good  lesson  organization  implies 
the  association  of  minor  points  under  their  proper  head- 
ings, and  that  in  turn  means  that  the  pupil  has  had  to 
concentrate  on  what  he  read,  and  that  he  has  had  to 
review  the  main  points  of  the  lesson  in  order  to  make  a 
proper  evaluation. 

SUMMARY 

1.  The  subject-matter  of  silent   reading  in  the  third  and 
fourth  grades  should  include  the  material  contained  in 
the  history,  hygiene,  and  geography  textbooks  as  well 
as  that  in  the  readers  ordinarily  used. 

2.  The   material    selected    may   be   used   for  silent-reading 
and   subsequent   class   discussion   and   as  the  basis  for 
drill  exercises  to  promote  speed  and  comprehension. 

3.  Satisfactory  methods  which  will  motivate  purposeful  and 
rapid    silent    reading   include    having   pupils    (a)    read 
intensively  for  two  minutes,  then  discuss  the  material 
read;     (5)    "race"    to   answer    questions   asked    by    the 
teacher;    (c)    read   a   story   within   a   time   limit,   then 


GRADES  THREE  AND  FOUR  9?9 

undergo  a  comprehensive  test;  (d)  read  the  entire  story 
with  one  or  more  objectives  in  mind. 
4.  Silent-reading  lessons  and  drills  should  create  a  proper 
attitude  toward  reading.  They  should  lead  the  pupil 
to  see  that  the  subject-matter  contains  interesting  ma- 
terial which  he  will  enjoy.  They  should  provide  drill 
exercises  which  will  promote  concentration  and  pur- 
poseful reading,  and  they  should  encourage  much  read- 
ing outside  of  class. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Earhart,  Lida  B.  "An  experiment  in  teaching  children  to 
study."  Education,  Vol.  30,  1909. 

Greene,  H.  A.  "Measuring  comprehension  of  content  ma- 
terial." TTie  Tiventieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  II.  Public  School  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1921. 

Hoover,  J.  H.  "Motivated  drill  work  in  third-grade  silent 
reading."  The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society 
for  the  Study  of  Education:  Part  II.  Public  School  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois,  1921. 

"New  materials  for  the  primary  grades."  The  Twentieth 
Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion: Part  II.  Public  School  Publishing  Company,  Bloom- 
ington, Illinois,  1921. 

Nessle,  Fannie  B.  "A  silent-reading  project:  Fourth  grade." 
Journal  of  Educational  Method,  Vol.  1,  (December)  1921. 

Scranton,  Clara.  "An  exceptional  group  in  reading:  Grade 
IV."  Journal  of  Educational  Method,  Vol.  2  (October) 
1922. 

Stone,  C.  R.  Silent  and  Oral  Reading.  Houghton  Mifflin  and 
Company,  Boston,  1922. 

Sutherland,  A.  H.  "Correcting  school  disabilities  in  read- 
ing." Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (January)  1921. 

Wilson,  Estaline.  "Specific  teaching  of  silent  reading." 
Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (October)  1921. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SILENT  READING  IN  GRADES  V  AND  VI 

Silent  reading  in  intermediate  grades.  Although 
educators  do  not  agree  on  the  time  when  silent  reading 
should  be  introduced  into  the  primary  grades,  they  are 
almost  unanimous  in  saying  that  it  should  be  empha- 
sized in  the  fourth  grade  and  those  above.  The  more 
advanced  the  grade,  the  less  difficult  it  is  for  the  teacher 
to  select  suitable  material  and  devise  effective  exercises. 

Subject-matter  of  silent  reading.  Fifth  and  sixth- 
grade  teachers  should  readily  be  able  to  obtain  an 
abundance  of  material  for  use  in  silent-reading  classes. 
They  may  use  the  subject-matter  of  the  ordinary  read- 
ers, of  geography,  history,  hygiene,  and  nature-study 
textbooks,  and  of  pamphlets  that  treat  of  topics  which 
are  important  to  the  child. 

How  to  use  silent-reading  material.  The  materials 
suggested  may  be  used  either  for  silent-reading  lessons 
which  are  followed  by  class  discussion,  or  as  the  basis 
of  effective  silent-reading  drill  exercises. 

Half  a  recitation  period  may  profitably  be  used  for 
reading  an  assignment  silently.  Most  pupils  find  much 
pleasure  in  such  silent  reading.  The  remainder  of  the 
period  may  be  spent  discussing  those  characters  and 

280 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX  281 

incidents  of  the  story  which  appeal  most  strongly  to 
the  children. 

Another  effective  plan,  which  may  be  used  in  classes 
studying  purely  literary  material,  is  to  have  pupils  read 
their  lessons  with  a  view  to  determining  which  parts  are 
most  beautiful  and  expressive.  When  differences  of 
opinion  arise,  as  they  surely  will,  each  should  read  his 
paragraph  aloud,  then  give  the  reasons  for  his  choice. 
Such  oral  reading  is  thereby  pupil-motivated,  because 
the  child  feels  that  he  must  present  his  passage  to  the 
class  audience  in  such  fashion  that  others  will  feel  the 
emotions  which  he  feels,  and  visualize  the  scenes  as  he 
visualizes  them. 

During  the  last  few  minutes  of  the  silent-reading 
period,  teacher  and  pupils  should  analyze  the  material 
read  in  order  to  select  the  chief  incidents  and  to  deter- 
mine which  statement  contains  the  central  thought  of  the 
selection.  That  done,  the  pupils  should  make  sum- 
maries or  outlines  of  the  selection.  Such  exercises  fur- 
nish excellent  practice  in  learning  to  discriminate  among 
points  of  major  and  minor  importance,  a  valuable  abil- 
ity which  pupils  should  acquire  as  early  as  possible. 
The  pupils  should  receive  the  teacher's  help  and 
guidance  throughout  the  work,  however,  because  organ- 
izing is  a  complex  process.  Not  until  later  should  they 
be  asked  to  work  independently. 

The  style  and  content  of  the  selections  usually  found 
in  readers  prepared  for  the  upper  grades  offer  an  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  a  wholesome  taste  for  reading  matter 


282  SILENT  READING 

of  the  better  kind.  Reading  good  literature  and  dis- 
cussing it  in  the  classroom  gives  many  children  their 
first  true  conception  of  others,  and  often  inspires  to 
deeds  of  altruism.  Those  who  realize  the  power  of  sug- 
gestion in  child  life  well  know  the  importance  of  good 
reading  matter. 

Pupils  should  be  allowed  fully  to  discuss  the  motives 
that  may  have  prompted  the  characters  of  the  story  to 
play  their  roles  as  they  did.  In  so  far  as  possible  they 
should  think  out  the  causes  and  effects  of  the  incidents 
related.  The  teacher  should  promote  such  discussion 
by  well-chosen  questions,  and  she  should  encourage 
pupils  to  relate  their  personal  experiences  which  seem 
to  bear  a  relation  to  the  material  being  discussed. 

Specimen  silent-reading  lessons.  On  the  following 
pages  we  suggest  methods  for  handling  such  represent- 
ative selections,  typical  of  the  material  found  in  the 
best  textbooks.  The  plans  outlined  are  designed  to 
develop  an  appreciation  of  good  literature  and  to  help 
pupils  obtain  more  real  pleasure  from  their  reading  and 
re-reading  of  prose  and  poetry  usually  assigned.  The 
teacher  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  chief  aim  of  all 
such  work,  namely,  to  help  pupils  get  the  greatest  pos- 
sible amount  of  pleasure  from  their  reading. 

In  many  instances,  and  especially  when  a  story  has  a 
historical  setting,  as  has  the  tale  of  Robin  Hood,1  it  is 

1This  story  of  Robin  Hood  is  taken  from  the  Fifth  Reader 
of  the  Free  and  Treadwell  Reading-Literature  Series.  The  entire 
story  is  not  griven.  Only  those  paragraphs  on  which  we  based 
the  questions  of  the  specimen  lesson  have  been  presented  here. 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX  283 

well  for  the  teacher  to  give  a  brief  introduction  before 
pupils  undertake  to  read  the  selection  from  their  books. 
In  this  case,  the  introduction  should  consist  of  some 
account  of  the  conditions  that  obtained  in  the  days  of 
the  legendary  Robin  Hood,  the  inequality  of  the  classes, 
the  attitude  of  the  peasants  towards  the  rich  and  of  the 
rich  towards  the  peasants,  the  role  of  the  ruler,  and  the 
prevailing  notions  of  justice  and  fair  play.  As  a  motive 
for  reading  the  story,  the  teacher  may  explain  that  it  is 
an  account  of  a  band  of  merry  outlaws  and  the  experi- 
ences that  they  had. 

TYPE  STUDY:    A  PROSE  SELECTION 

Robin  Hood,  the  Archer  Hero 

Long  years  ago,  when  good  King  Harry  ruled,  there 
lived  a  famous  archer,  Robin  Hood  by  name.  He 
abode  in  the  depths  of  the  great  Sherwood  Forest, 
on  the  border  of  Nottingham  town.  There  roved 
with  him  some  seven  score  merry  men. 

*'******« 

And  this  is  how  Robin  Hood  fell  afoul  of  the  law 
and  had  to  live  in  the  forest. 

When  Robin  was  about  fifteen,  strong  of  body  and 
brave  of  heart,  a  shooting  match  was  set  by  the  sheriff 
of  Nottingham,  who  offered  a  prize  of  forty  marks 
to  him  who  would  shoot  the  best  shaft  in  Notting- 
hamshire. 

####***# 

Then  up  spoke  Robin  right  merrily,  "Our  king  hath 
provided  a  shooting  match  at  Nottingham,  and  I'm 
readv  with  mv  bow." 

"What  ho!"  cried  the  forester  in  scorn,  "how  can 


284  SILENT  READING 

a  boy  so  young  bear  a  bow?     Why,  he  is  not  able 
to  draw  one  string." 

"I'll  wager  you  twenty  marks,"  cried  Robin,  "that 
I'll  hit  a  mark  at  a  hundred  rods."  Whereat  all  the 

men  in  green  garb  roared  with  laughter. 

******** 

Then  Robin  gripped  his  bow  and  let  fly  a  broad 
arrow.  On  it  sped  to  the  border  of  the  glade  and 
the  noblest  hart  of  the  herd  leaped  high  in  the  air 

and  fell  dead. 

•        *••**•• 

"Ha!"  cried  Robin,  "What  think  ye  of  that  shot? 
The  wager  is  mine  even  were  it  a  thousand  pounds." 

All  the  foresters  arose  shouting  with  anger,  "Get 
thee  gone,  thou  has  killed  the  king's  deer.  By  King 
Harry,  thou  shouldst  lose  thy  ears." 

Questions 

1.  Why  did  the  foresters  encourage  Robin  Hood 

to  shoot  at.  the  deer! 

2.  Do  you  think  Robin  Hood  was  boastful! 

3.  What  do  you  think  of  the  vows  of  Robin  Hood 's 

band! 

4.  Do  you  like  Little  John!    Why!  t 

5.  Did  you  ever  read  or  hear  of  beggars  like  these ! 

Should  we  refuse  to  help  beggars  today!    If 
you  were  to  help  them,  how  would  you  do  it! 

TYPE  STUDY:    A  POEMJ 

The  Bell  of  Atri 

At  Atri  in  Abruzzo,  a  small  town 
Of  ancient  Roman  date,  but  scant  renown,  -^ 
One  of  those  little  places  that  have  run 


'This  study  is  based  on  Longfellow's  "The  Bell  of  Atri"  which 
of  the  Free  and   Tread  well  Reading- 
Lit  rratnre  Series  published  by  Row.   Peterson  and  Company.  Chl- 


appears  In  the  Fifth  Reader  of  the  Free  and   Treadwell  Readii 


cagx>.  The  entire  poem  is  not  reproduced.  Only  those  portions 
on  which  we  based  the  questions  of  the  specimen  lesson  have 
been  given. 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX  285 

Half  up  the  hill,  beneath  a  blazing  sun, 

And  then  sat  down  to  rest,  as  if  to  say, 

"I  climb  no  further  upward,  come  what  may," — 

The  Re  Giovanni,  now  unknown  to  fame. 

So  many  monarchs  since  have  borne  the  name, 

Had  a  great  bell  hung  in  the  market  place 

Beneath  a  roof,  projecting  some  small  space, 

By  way  of  shelter  from  the  sun  and  rain. 

Then  rode   he  through  the  streets  with  all  his  train, 

And,  with  the  blast  of  trumpets  loud  and  long, 

Made  proclamation,  that  whenever  wrong 

Was  done  to  any  man,  he  should  but  ring 

The  great  bell  in  the  square,  and  he,  the  king, 

Would  cause  the  syndic  to  decide  thereon. 

Such  was  the  proclamation  of  King  John. 


By  chance  it  happened  that  in  Atri  dwelt 
A  knight,  with  spur  on  heel  and  sword  in  belt, 
Who  loved  to  hunt  the  wild  boar  in  the  woods, 
Who  loved  his  falcons  with  their  crimson  hoods, 
Who  loved  his  hounds  and  horses,  and  all  sports 
And  prodigalities  of  camps  and  courts,  — 
Loved,  or  had  loved  them;  for  at  last  grown  old, 
His  only  passion  was  the  love  of  gold. 

Making  the  Assignment 

I.    Read  the  entire  poem  carefully,  keeping  in  mind 

the  questions  mentioned  under  heading  III. 
II.    Find  the  meanings  of  all  unfamiliar  words. 
III.    Answer  the  following  questions : 

1.  Do  you  like  this  story?    Why? 

2.  In  what  ways  does  this  poem  remind  you 

of  the  story  of  "Black  Beauty"? 

3.  Do  our  dumb  friends  now  need  a  bell  of 

justice  like  the  Bell  of  Atri? 


286  SILENT  READING 

4.    How  can  we  help  to  secure  more  humane 
treatment  for  dumb  animals? 

Directions  for  Class  Study 

I.  Read  the  sentence  included  in  the  first  eleven 
lines.  When  you  finish,  indicate  by  looking 
toward  the  teacher.  Wait  quietly  until  all 
are  through. 

1.  What  is  a  good  title  or  subject  for  this 

sentence! 

2.  What  part  of  the  sentence  is  expressed  in 

the  most  pleasing  wayt 

3.  Why  do  you  think  so? 

II.    Read  the  second  sentence  silently.     When  you 
finish,  indicate  as  before. 

1.  What  is  the  main  idea  of  this  sentence? 

2.  What  was  the  proclamation? 

3.  Did  it  cost  anything  to  claim  justice  in 

this  way? 

4.  Did  a  poor  man  have  as  much  chance  to 

obtain  justice  in  the  court  as  the  rich 
man  had? 

5.  Would  a  free  court  be  good  for  the  people 

now?    Explain  fully. 
ITI.    Read  the  next  paragraph  silently,  as  before. 

1.  What  title  might  we  give  this  paragraph? 

2.  What  kind  of  life  had  the  knight  lived? 

3.  How  did  his  selfishness  show  itself  in  his 

old  age? 

The  remainder  of  the  poem  may  be  treated  in  a  similar 
manner.  In  order  to  vary  the  exercises,  the  teacher  may 
in  some  instances  ask  her  questions  before  the  children 
read  the  paragraph  silently. 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX  287 

Directions  for  Oral  Reading 

This  selection  is  good  material  for  oral  reading.  Al- 
though much  of  it  is  ordinary  narrative  presenting  but 
little  difficulty,  the  speeches  of  the  various  characters 
require  careful  attention  if  they  are  to  be  read  correctly. 
Questions  like  the  following,  which  direct  the  pupil's 
attention  to  the  poem,  help  children  to  read  with  proper 
expression. 

1.  In  what  tone  of  voice  would  the  knight  be  likely 

to  speak  the  soliloquy  at  the  bottom  of  page 
46? 

2.  What  is  the  feeling  of  the  syndic  when  he  sees 

that  a  horse  is  ringing  the  bell? 

3.  In  what  tone  of  voice  would  the  syndic  pro- 

nounce his  judgment? 

4.  What  feeling  does  the  king  express? 

Organizing  the  Selection 

After  the  selection  has  been  thoroughly  studied  accord- 
ing to  the  plan  outlined,  it  may  be  used  as  material  for 
teaching  pupils  to  organize.  The  following  suggestions 
to  the  class  will  help  children  to  attack  the  problem  of 
organization  in  such  a  way  that  good  results  are  almost 
assured. 

1.  Write  a  summary  of  each  of  the  parts  of  the 

poem.    The  summary  should  consist  of  a  single 
sentence  or  phrase. 

2.  Group  the  summaries  under  three  general  head- 

ings. 

3.  Follow  the  same  plan  to  outline  an  account  of 

some  personal  experience. 


288  SILENT  READING 

4.  Relate  the  account  of  your  personal  experience 
so  that  the  class  may  decide  whether  your 
story  is  told  as  clearly  and  in  as  orderly  fash- 
ion as  Longfellow  tells  his  tale  in  verse. 

Reading  tests.  Fifth  and  sixth-grade  reading  classes 
should  be  tested  from  time  to  time  in  order  that  teacher 
and  pupils  may  learn  how  thoroughly  the  reading  is 
being  done.  The  information  obtained  from  such  tests 
enables  the  teacher  to  increase  the  interest  and  efforts 
of  the  pupils  and  to  devise  and  apply  remedial  measures 
if  necessary.  The  administration  of  written  tests  pro- 
motes habits  of  thoroughness,  because  such  tests  urge 
pupils  to  read  more  attentively  and  to  exert  greater 
effort  to  retain  the  chief  points  in  the  matter  which  they 
read.  The  maturity  of  the  pupils  and  the  highly  factual 
character  of  the  subject-matter  are  favorable  to  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  such  testing;  however,  it  must  not 
be  done  at  a  sacrifice  of  time  that  should  be  devoted  to 
other  school  work,  nor  should  it  burden  the  teacher. 

Because  pupils  tend  to  regard  the  many  facts  of  a 
logon  as  equally  important,  the  teacher  should  use  the 
study  question  and  the  problem  assignment  to  develop 
their  powers  of  discrimination  and  evaluation.  One  need 
not  expect  children  to  discriminate  among  major  and 
minor  topics  unless  they  have  been  trained  to  do  so. 
Too  many  teachers  forget  that  the  word  "assignment" 
literally  means  "a  pointing  of  the  way,"  and  that  every 
good  assignment  must  do  that  by  means  of  definite  direc- 
tions and  the  explanation  of  difficult  parts  of  the  lesson 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX 


289 


about  to  be  attacked.  Until  pupils  have  learned  how  to 
study,  the  teacher  should  suggest  the  central  idea  and 
important  points  of  every  lesson  that  she  assigns.  She 
can  do  that  by  asking  well-directed  questions,  and  by 
having  pupils  read  material  that  contains  the  facts  which 
enable  them  to  solve  a  particular  problem. 

Adapting-  the  test.  The  nature  of  the  test  that  is 
used  should  in  every  case  be  in  keeping  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  material  which  is  being  studied.  The  treat- 
ment of  literature,  read  either  to  develop  or  to  present 
certain  humanizing  and  socializing  concepts,  must  differ 
from  that  accorded  scientific  subject-matter.  Tests  based 
on  purely  literary  material  must  be  designed  to  discover 
how  well  children  are  able  to  grasp  ideals  and  to  sense 
emotions.  Tests  based  on  the  subject-matter  of  historical 
and  scientific  textbooks  should  aim  to  discover  how 
accurately  pupils  read  and  how  well  they  comprehend. 
The  power  to  concentrate  on  what  is  being  read,  and  the 
ability  to  do  rapid,  purposeful  reading  may  be  developed 
by  using  drill  exercises  based  on  lesson  material.  The 
specimen  lessons  that  follow  give  suggestions  for  doing 
that  sort  of  work. 

TYPE  STUDY:    A  HISTORY  LESSON 
Abraham  Lincoln1 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  the  President  during  this  dark 
time  in  our  nation's  history  —  the  Civil  War. 

He  was  not  a  handsome  man,  not  a  scholarly  man, 

^his  selection  is  taken  from  Mara  L.  Pratt's  American  History 
Stories  (Vol.  4,  pp.  5-12)  published  by  the  Educational  Pub- 
lishing: Company,  Boston. 


290  SILENT  READING 

not  a  society -mannered  man;  but  a  more  honest,  more 
loyal-hearted,  more  grand-souled  man  than  Abraham 
Lincoln  never  stood  at  the  head  of  our  government. 
He  was  as  honest* as  George  Washington,  as  sturdy 
as  Andrew  Jackson,  as  brave  as  the  bravest  general, 
and,  in  the  end,  as  noble  as  the  noblest  martyr. 

He  had  had  a  hard  life  as  a  boy.  He  had  been 
brought  up  on  a  farm,  first  in  Kentucky  and  later  in 
Indiana,  where  he  had  learned  to  hoe  and  to  plant, 
to  drive  oxen,  to  build  a  log  house,  to  split  rails,  to 
fell  trees  —  everything  that  a  farmer  boy  away  out 
in  a  new  country  would  have  to  do,  this  boy  had 
done.  Indeed,  when  he  was  named  for  President  by 
the  Republican  party,  the  opposing  parties  sneered  at 
him,  calling  him  a  " vulgar  rail-splitter,"  "an  ignorant 
boor,  unfit  for  the  society  of  gentlemen." 

But  for  all  his  hoeing  and  his  rail-splitting,  for  all 
his  poverty  and  his  hard  labor,  for  all  his  rough  home 
and  his  common  companions,  Abraham  Lincoln  soon 
proved  that  he  had  a  something  in  his  head  and  in 
his  heart  of  which  any  gentleman  might  well  have 
been  proud  —  a  something  that  a  world  of  fine  houses 
and  fine  clothes  could  not  buy  —  something  which,  by 
and  by,  prompted  him  to  set  all  the  poor  black  men 
and  women  in  the  United  States  free. 

Although  Abraham  Lincoln  did  live  in  the  back- 
woods, and  did  not  go  to  school,  nevertheless,  he  was 
all  this  time  in  the  best  of  society.  Fortunately  for 
him,  his  mother  was  a  real  lady  in  heart,  and  tried 
always  to  keep  her  boy  from  growing  up  a  coarse, 
ignorant  "rail-splitter,"  as  his  party  opponents  called 
him.  She  taught  him  always  to  keep  his  eyes  open, 
and  his  mind  awake  to  the  beauties  about  him  in  na- 
ture. She  taught  him  that  it  was  a  noble  heart  that 
could  see  God  in  the  beautiful  flowers,  in  the  birds, 
in  the  fields,  in  the  forests,  and  in  the  waters;  that 
it  was  the  artist's  soul  that  loved  to  watch  the  beau- 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX  291 

tiful  sunset  lights  and  the  deepening  shadows;  she 
taught  him  to  read  the  few  books  she  owned,  and 
helped  him  to  earn  a  few  more;  she  encouraged  his 
love  for  reading,  and  was  careful  that  his  reading 
was  always  of  the  best  kind. 

We  have  suggested  five  methods  of  handling  this 
material ;  the  teacher  may  use  any  or  all  of  them  as  the 
needs  of  the  class  or  the  character  of  the  material  war- 
rant. Some  of  the  methods  may  be  applied  to  almost 
any  kind  of  subject-matter  likely  to  be  placed  before 
fifth  and  sixth-grade  pupils. 

a) 

The  teacher  should  write  on  the  blackboard  a  list  of 
questions  similar  to  the  following  and  read  them  with 
the  pupils  before  they  undertake  to  read  the  assign- 
ment. When  that  has  been  done,  she  should  ask  the 
class  to  read  the  assignment  carefully  with  a  view  to 
answering  the  questions.  When  pupils  have  written  as 
many  answers  as  possible,  they  should  refer  to  the  text- 
book for  answers  to  the  questions  on  which  they  failed. 

1.  What  three   qualities  helped  to  make  Lincoln 

great  ? 

2.  Why  did  his  opponents  call  him  a  "vulgar  rail- 

splitter"? 

3.  What  was  the  "something  that  a  world  of  fine 

houses  and  fine  clothes  could  not  buy"? 

4.  Who  were  Lincoln's  teachers? 

5.  What  three  things  did  his  mother  teach  him? 

(II) 

The  following  questions  of  the  judgment  type  are 
sometimes  called  "interpretative  questions."  Although 


292  SILENT  READING 

developing  habits  of  alertness  and  close  and  rapid  read- 
ing, they  are  valuable  because  they  promote  the  habit 
of  thinking  and  evaluating  without  which  speed  in  read- 
ing is  of  slight  value. 

Pupils  should  silently  read  the  assignment  before  see- 
ing the  questions,  then  answer  as  many  as  possible, 
they  may  not  be  as  effective  as  factual  questions  for 
They  may  read  the  selection  a  second  time,  if  necessary, 
in  order  to  find  answers  which  they  could  not  remem- 
ber from  the  first  reading.  The  following  questions 
are  typical  of  the  sort  that  should  be  used. 

1.  Do  you  think  the  hardships  that  Lincoln  ex- 

perienced were  influential  in  making  him  a 
great  man? 

2.  Do  you  think  it  necessary  for  all  aspiring  boys 
ami  irirls  to  pass  through  hardships? 

(in) 

Discriminating  reading  may  be  encouraged  by  allow- 
ing pupils  to  read  a  selection  in  any  manner  they  choose, 
knowing  that  they  will  be  asked  to  write  answers  to  a 
series  of  questions  which  will  be  given  to  them  during 
tho  recitation  period. 

(IV) 

Pupils  may  be  allowed  to  take  sides  and  "race"  to 
see  who  can  first  answer  the  questions  asked  by  the 
teacher.  The  side  answering  the  greatest  number  of 
questions  is  regarded  as  the  winner.  The  teacher  should 
make  sure  that  the  questions  used  in  an  exercise  of 
this  kind  have  not  been  made  familiar  by  inclusion  in 
previous  tests. 

(V) 

Pupils  should  read  a  selection  once,  then  prepare 
questions  for  use  in  class  discussion.  The  class  may 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX  093 

be  divided  into  two  groups,  one  of  which  originates 
questions  to  be  presented  to  the  other.  At  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  exercise,  teacher  and  pupils  may  profitably 
discuss  the  merit  of  the  questions  that  were  presented. 
An  interesting  variation  of  this  exercise  is  to  have  one 
group  of  pupils  make  an  outline  of  the  subject-matter 
and  present  it  to  the  other  group  for  criticism. 

The  exercises  based  on  the  following  geography  lesson 
(part  of  one  day's  assignment)  are  suggestive  of  plans 
that  help  to  increase  pupils'  speed  and  increase  their 
power  to  comprehend.  Such  methods  develop  purposeful 
reading  of  assignments  in  history,  hygiene,  nature  study, 
language,  and  arithmetic.  Some  teachers  use  the  last 
half  of  each  recitation  period  to  direct  the  reading  of  the 
new  asignment,  having  the  pupils  read  the  new  assign- 
ment with  a  view  to  finding  answers  to  study  questions 
prepared  by  the  teacher.  When  the  use  of  this  plan 
has  enabled  pupils  to  read  a  new  assignment  carefully 
and  understandingly,  they  should  undertake  to  outline 
the  subject-matter  of  the  next  day's  lesson  inde- 
pendently. 

TYPE  STUDY:  A  GEOGRAPHY  LESSON 
Philadelphia  ranks  third  among  the  cities  of  the 
United  States  in  population.  Lines  of  steamships  run 
from  Philadelphia  to  the  leading  seaports  of  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries,  carrying  passengers  and 
a  multitude  of  products.  Because  of  its  nearness  ^to 
the  coal  fields,  Philadelphia  has  become  a  great  ship- 
ping point  for  coal.  The  coal  and  iron  have  made 
possible  the  manufacture  of  cars,  heavy  machinery, 
and  ships.  Philadelphia  is  a  great  textile  manufac- 


294  SILENT  READING 

turing  center,  making  especially  woolen  goods;  there 
is  much  manufacturing  of  clothing  ;  and  in  carpet  manu- 
facture. This  is  the  most  important  city  in  the  country.1 


Before  the  pupils  read  the  paragraph  tell  them  that 
there  are  three  reasons  why  Philadelphia  is  a  large 
manufacturing  city.  Have  them  read  the  paragraph 
and  then  write  the  reasons  without  again  referring  to 
the  selection. 

(II) 

Have  pupils  read  the  paragraph  silently,  then  outline 
the  topic  discussed  without  again  referring  to  the  book. 
This  method  should  be  used  after  pupils  have  had  the 
training  sii«_rLr<  stod  under  heading  I. 

(in) 

Instruct  the  pupils  to  read  the  paragraph  through 
once,  and  afterwards  test  them  to  determine  whether 
they  have  grasped  the  main  points  of  the  material  read. 
Give  two  questions  based  on  the  chief  topics  discussed. 
Questions  for  this  paragraph  may  be:  Give  three  rea- 
sons why  Philadelphia  is  a  great  manufacturing  center. 
Name  three  articles  manufactured  in  Philadelphia. 
When  the  pupils  have  written  the  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions, they  should  exchange  papers  for  correction  and 
report  the  results  to  the  class. 

(IV) 

Ask  pupils  to  write  three  reasons  why  Philadelphia 
is  a  great  manufacturing  center,  then  have  the  class 
read  the  paragraph  in  order  to  see  how  many  reasons 
given  were  right. 

1This  selection  Is  taken  from  the  Tarr  and  McMurry  Geography: 
Second  Rook  (p.  66)  published  by  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York  City. 


GRADES  FIVE  AND  SIX 


295 


(V) 

Write  questions  about  the  subject-matter  of  the  as- 
signment on  3  x  5  cards,  placing  one  question  on  each 
card.  Distribute  the  cards,  placing  them  face  down 
on  the  desks.  Have  the  class  read  the  assignment. 
When  all  have  finished,  have  each  pupil  in  turn  look  at 
his  card,  read  the  question  aloud  to  the  class,  and  give 
the  answer  if  possible. 

TYPE  STUDY:  A  LESSON  IN  HYGIENE 
A  silent-reading  lesson  in  hygiene,  suitable  for  use  as 
the  basis  of  drill  work,  was  based  on  a  pamphlet  which 
the  Red  Cross  Society  asked  sixth-grade  pupils  to  take 
to  their  homes  during  a  recent  health  crusade.  After 
devoting  two  periods  to  a  discussion  of  the  topic  "How 
to  Be  Healthy,"  the  pupils  were  told  to  suggest  diseases 
likely  to  be  most  prevalent  in  their  community,  and  to 
tell  which  of  those  should  be  most  carefully  guarded 
against  and  cared  for. 

After  the  pupils  had  agreed  that  tuberculosis  should 
receive  a  large  amount  of  attention,  they  were  given  a 
pamphlet  published  by  the  New  York  State  Department 
of  Health  entitled,  "What  We  Should  Know  About 
Tuberculosis."  That  was  used  in  conjunction  with  the 
chapter  on  the  same  subject  in  the  class  textbook  of 
hygiene.  Following  the  silent  reading  and  the  study  of 
the  material,  exercises  similar  to  those  already  suggested 
in  this  chapter  were  given  as  a  means  of  testing  the 
pupils  to  determine  how  well  they  understood  what  they 
read. 


296  SILENT  READING 

SUMMARY 

1.  It   is   reasonably   easy  to   teach   silent  reading  to  fifth 
and  sixth-grade  pupils  because  they  have  mastered  the 
mechanics  of  reading  and   can  read  extensively. 

2.  Because  the  subject-matter  generally  used  in  these  grades 
is  well   organized   and   rich   in  highly  factual  content, 
testing  and  training  pupils  to  comprehend  and  organize 
is  a  relatively  simple  matter. 

3.  In   teaching  silent   reading  to   pupils  of  these   grades, 
certain  selections  should  be  discussed  in  class  in  order 
to    develop    appreciation.      Much    supplementary    work 
should  be  done,  and  the  teacher  should  conduct  inten- 
sive drills  designed  to   develop  speed   and   the  ability 
to  comprehend  and  organize. 

4.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  apply  the  methods  of 
study  learned  in   the  silent-reading  class  to  the  work 
done  in  other  subjects. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 
Dearborn,  G.  V.     How  to  Learn  Easily.     Little,  Brown  and 

Company,  Boston,  1016. 

Gray,  W.   S.      "Reading   in   the  elementary  schools   of  Indi- 
anapolis:   Part  IV."     Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.   19, 

(April)   1010. 
Horn,  Ernest.     "The  relation  of  silent  reading  to  efficiency 

in   study."      Addresses   and   Proceedings   of   the  National 

Education  Association.  Vol.  58,  1020. 
Judd,    Charles    H.        "Analysis    of    learning    processes    and 

specific    teaching."      Elementary   School  Journal,   Vol.    21, 

(May)   1021. 
O'Hern,  J.  P.     "The  development  of  a  chart  of  attainments 

in    reading."      Journal   of  Educational    Research,    Vol.    3, 

1021. 
Stone,   C.   R.      silent   and   Oral  Reading.      Hough  ton   Mifflin 

Company,  Boston,  1022. 


CHAPTER  XV 
SILENT  READING  IN  GRADES  VII  AND  VIII 

Teaching  pupils  to  study.  Teaching  pupils  of  the 
advanced  elementary  grades  and  of  the  junior  high 
school  how  to  study  economically  and  effectively  is  quite 
as  important  a  matter  as  teaching  them  silent  reading 
as  an  end  in  itself.  At  this  period  of  school  life  pupils 
may  be  led  to  realize  that  the  possession  of  skill  in 
acquiring  knowledge,  and  an  effective  method  of  using 
that  skill,  are  really  of  more  importance  than  the  posses- 
sion of  the  knowledge  itself.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to 
arouse  an  interest  'in  methods  of  study,  by  showing  pupils 
the  advantage  of  economical  plans  and  effective  devices. 
The  teacher's  first  task,  then,  is  to  do  that  by  helping 
her  pupils  become  rapid  and  purposeful  readers.  It  is 
advisable  to  use  a  part  of  each  recitation  period  for 
developing  a  method  of  effective  study.  The  last  five 
minutes  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  for  making  an 
assignment  in  such  a  way  that  pupils  have  definite  prob- 
lems to  work  on. 

Experiments  in  learning-  to  study.1  Interest  in  the 
problem  of  establishing  effective  study  habits  led  the 

Germane,  Charles  E.  "The  value  of  the  controlled  mental 
summary  as  a  method  of  studying-."  School  and  Society,  Vol. 
12,  (December)  1920. 

297 


298  SILENT  READING 

authors  to  conduct  an  experiment  in  an  eighth-grade 
class  a  few  years  ago.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  ability 
of  the  pupils  so  as  to  determine  what  sort  of  training 
they  needed,  it  was  necessary  carefully  to  check  the  rate 
at  which  they  read  one  of  their  assignments,  a  history 
lesson  of  about  the  usual  length.  The  slowest  reader 
read  106  words  per  minute,  the  fastest  428  words.  A 
seven-minute  test  designed  to  measure  comprehension 
and  retention,  given  immediately  after  the  reading, 
showed  scores  ranging  from  10.4  per  cent  to  a  trifle  less 
than  50  per  cent.  These  data  convinced  teacher  and 
pupils  that  it  was  necessary  to  increase  the  speed  of 
reading,  and  to  acquire  some  method  that  would  enable 
the  reader  quickly  to  grasp  the  main  points  of  what 
he  read. 

Types  of  reading  ability.  As  the  test  revealed  three 
types  of  readers  —  rapid,  medium-rate,  and  slow  —  the 
class  was  grouped  into  two  divisions  for  the  purpose 
of  drill.  One  group  included  the  rapid  readers  and 
the  medium-rate  readers  who  had  made  high  scores  on 
the  speed  test,  the  other  included  the  slow  readers  and 
those  pupils  of  the  medium-rate  group  who  had  made 
low  scores.  The  intention  of  the  authors  was  to  develop 
methods  of  effective  study  by  means  of  drill  exercises. 
To  that  end  they  selected  material  from  the  textbooks 
used  in  the  eighth  grade;  the  topics  covered  were  "The 
'Sweating'  System,"  "Tuberculosis,"  "The  Conserva- 
tion of  Human  Life,"  "Immigration,"  "Child  Labor," 
and  "Unemployment."  Four  days  per  week  for  four 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         299 

weeks  the  class  spent  twenty-five  minutes  daily,  the  last 
half  of  the  recitation  period  in  social  science,  in  a  con- 
sideration of  some  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
study  and  their  application  to  the  material  being  studied. 

The  two  groups  of  pupils  were  united  for  the  first 
two  lessons.  During  the  first  recitation  period,  which 
was  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  principles  of 
study  and  their  application  to  one  of  the  selections 
chosen,  class  discussion  brought  out  the  necessity  of  pay- 
ing close  attention  to  the  title  of  an  article  that  one 
reads,  and  to  the  importance  of  the  mechanical  features 
of  printed  matter  —  paragraph  headings,  marginal 
notes,  italicized  words,  etc.  The  teacher  explained  that 
the  title  of  an  article  always  merits  careful  considera- 
tion, because  it  is  usually  an  index  to  what  is  to  be 
found  in  the  article  itself. 

The  "key  sentence."  It  was  also  made  clear  that 
in  every  well-written  paragraph  the  first  or  second  sen- 
tence is  usually  Avhat  one  may  call  a  "key  sentence," 
which  gives  an  idea  of  what  is  treated  in  the  para- 
graph. Pupils  were  advised  to  read  the  last  sentence 
of  a  paragraph  carefully  because  it  usually  sum- 
marizes what  has  preceded.  The  teacher  explained 
that  the  body  of  a  paragraph  —  the  middle  portion  - 
is  usually  only  an  elaboration  of  the  theme  stated  in 
the  opening  sentences,  and  also  that  the  summary, 
which  as  a  rule  appears  in  the  concluding  sentence, 
makes  it  unnecessary  for  one  to  read  all  parts  of  a 
paragraph  with  the  same  degree  of  close  attention. 


300  SILENT  READING 

It  must  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  that  although  pupils 
were  strongly  urged  to  give  particular  attention  to  the 
key  sentences,  they  were  likewise  told  that  if  they  care- 
fully read  the  first  sentences,  in  which  the  author  states 
his  aim  or  point  of  view,  they  can  then  read  the  other 
sentences  more  rapidly,  more  purposefully,  and  more 
understandingly.  In  fact,  if  one  catches  the  meaning 
of  the  key  sentence,  it  is  often  possible  even  to  "skim" 
a  paragraph  without  at  all  failing  to  comprehend  it. 

The  following  paragraphs,  chosen  from  the  lesson  on 
"The  *  Sweating*  System,"  illustrate  the  key  sentence 
and  show  its  relation  to  the  remainder  of  the  paragraph. 

The  conditions  which  not  only  make  possible,  but 
encourage,  the  sweating  system  are,  first,  a  crowded 
population  in  large  cities;  second,  high  rent;  and  third, 
contract  work.  The  crowded  population  in  the  large 
cities  offers  a  large  available  amount  of  labor  which 
can  be  secured  at  a  very  low  price.  A  large  foreign 
population  naturally  industrious  and  thrifty,  where 
the  women  and  children  and  often  the  men  have  no 
regular  work,  is  easily  exploited  by  the  sweaters,  and 
offers  many  victims  to  their  grinding  system. 

The  key  sentence  of  the  preceding  paragraph  is  obvi- 
ously the  first  one.  It  concisely  sets  forth  the  theme 
which  is  expanded  in  the  remainder. 

The  contractor,  or  sweater,  is  one  who  makes  a 
special  business  of  employing  immigrants.  The  man 
best  fitted  to  be  contractor,  or  sweater,  is  said  to  be 
the  man  who  is  well  acquainted  with  his  neighbors, 
who  is  able  to  speak  the7  language  of  several  classes 
of  immigrants,  .  .  .  etc. 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT  301 

The  main  idea  of  the  above  paragraph  is  the  defini- 
tion of  a  "sweater."  The  remainder  of  the  paragraph 
amplifies  the  definition. 

The  many  reports  of  investigations  that  have  been 
made  in  regard  to  the  sweat  shops  have  been  unani- 
mous in  speaking  of  the  unsanitary  conditions  within 
these  places.  They  are  invariably  found  in  the  most 
crowded  quarters  of  the  cities,  in  old  tenement  build- 
ings utterly  lacking  in  modern  conveniences.  Families 
of  from  three  to  five  or  more  are  found  living  in  two 
or  three-room  apartments,  in  small  rooms  poorly 
lighted  and  poorly  ventilated,  with  walls  and  floors 
often  out  of  repair.  For  entire  families  to  work,  cook, 
eat,  and  sleep  amid  such  unsanitary  conditions  as 
these,  working  long  hours  and  often  seven  days  of 
the  week,  in  close,  unventilated  rooms,  means  a  con- 
dition of  labor  that  is  not  only  a  menace  to  health, 
but  to  all  home  and  social  life. 

The  preceding  paragraph  well  illustrates  how  the 
main  portion  elaborates  and  expands  the  theme  stated 
in  the  key  sentence. 

The  "key  paragraph."  The  second  lesson  was  de- 
voted to  a  discussion  of  the  "key  paragraph."  The 
teacher  explained  that  the  key  paragraph  presents  that 
problem  and  its  phases  which  the  author  undertakes 
to  treat  as  a  whole  in  his  article.  The  two  following- 
excerpts,  taken  respectively  from  the  articles  on  "The 
'Sweating'  System'*  and  on  "Immigration,"  illustrate 
the  character  of  this  sort  of  paragraph.  The  second 
is  a  particularly  good  example. 

There  are  two  principal  causes  for  the  growth  of 
the  sweating  system,  which  should  be  discussed  at 


302  SILENT  READING 

some  length.     These  causes   are  the  kind  or  nature 
of  the  work,  and  the  kind  of  labor  supply. 

Some  Americans  early  protested  against  the  wide- 
open  door  for  immigrants.  Some  of  the  objections 
which  they  advanced  were  foolish  and  some  were  wise ; 
some  were  narrow  and  selfish ;  others  were  based,  not 
on  ill-will  toward  the  foreigner,  but  on  the  desire  to 
make  America  a  united  nation,  well  governed  and 
prosperous.  At  the  same  time  there  were  advocates 
of  the  wide-open  door  who  objected  to  interference 
with  immigration. 

One  may  observe  that  the  preceding  paragraphs  sug- 
gest what  is  to  be  treated  in  those  that  follow.  It  is 
a  simple  matter  to  get  pupils  to  note  this  fact  and  to 
make  good  use  of  it.  As  this  experiment  showed,  pupils 
who  carefully  read  the  key  paragraph  need  to  read 
carefully  only  two  or  three  sentences  of  each  of  the 
succeeding  paragraphs  in  order  to  grasp  the  thread 
of  the  author's  argument  as  he  develops  his  theme. 

For  the  third  lesson,  the  class  was  divided  into  two 
groups  as  originally  planned.  The  group  of  slow  read- 
ers was  drilled  on  rapid  reading  and  thought-getting. 
Some  of  the  devices  suggested  for  use  in  the  third 
and  fourth  grades  were  used  for  this  work.  Pupils  were 
asked  to  find  answers  to  the  teacher's  questions,  and 
they  were  taught  to  "skim"  the  page  in  search  of  par- 
ticular phrases  and  words.  The  latter  exercise  was  in- 
tended to  develop  the  habit  of  forming  a  wide  eye- 
span.  At  this  time  the  group  reviewed  the  principles 
of  economical  study  which  had  been  discussed  on  the 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         393 

two  preceding  days,  and  each  pupil  was  required  to 
find  at  least  two  key  sentences. 

Questions  based  on  topic  headings.  During  the 
third  recitation  period  the  group  of  rapid  readers  com- 
piled a  list  of  seven  questions  based  on  "The  'Sweating' 
System"  for  use  as  a  written  test  for  the  slow  group 
on  the  following  day.  That  plan  was  adopted  for  use 
with  brighter  pupils  in  the  hope  that  it  would  cause 
them  more  quickly  to  apprehend  the  relationship  be- 
tween the  paragraph  headings  and  the  important  divi- 
sions of  the  article,  and  also  that  they  might  learn  to 
base  questions  on  topics. 

The  two  groups  were  again  united  for  the  fourth 
lesson.  The  seven  questions  prepared  by  the  rapid  read- 
ers were  placed  on  the  blackboard  and  discussed  by 
all,  the  teacher  acting  as  referee.  The  aim  of  the  dis- 
cussion was  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  questions 
proposed  really  were  based  on  the  important  topics  in 
the  article.  The  net  result  of  this  exercise  was  that 
many  pupils,  who  previously  had  read  their  assignments 
without  thought  of  discriminating  among  major  and 
minor  points,  now  learned  from  teacher  and  classmate 
just  how  they  should  proceed  in  order  to  make  such 
a  discrimination. 

The  "hub  and  spoke"  device.  The  plan  of  outlin- 
ing a  lesson  as  the  hub  and  spokes  of  a  wheel  (a  device 
we  have  already  described)  was  effectively  used  for  this 
exercise.  The  whole  problem,  "The  'Sweating*  Sys- 
tem," was  regarded  as  the  hub,  the  main  topics,  which 


304  SILENT  READING 

pupils  agreed  on,  became  the  spokes.  This  device,  arti- 
ficial as  it  was,  aroused  genuine  interest  in  the  discus- 
sion. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  lesson  the  teacher  could  ob- 
serve that  certain  definite  aims  had  been  accomplished. 
The  pupils  had  become  acquainted  with  some  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  effective  study;  they  had  ac- 
quired some  skill  in  applying  those  principles  to  the 
material  under  consideration ;  they  had  reviewed  their 
lesson  a  number  of  times,  and  so,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  insured  the  retention  of  the  outstanding  facts  and 
arguments. 

The  treatment  of  the  other  articles  chosen  for  study 
by  this  class  differed  somewhat  from  that  which  we 
have  just  described  in  detail.  The  latter,  however,  sug- 
gestive  of  the  general  scheme  of  all,  indicates  the  kind 
of  training  which  pupils  in  the  upper  elementary  grades 
usually  need.  Although  classes  should  as  a  rule  be 
divided  into  groups  for  the  exercises  in  rapid  reading 
and  thought-getting,  so  that  those  of  more  nearly  equal 
ability  will  be  competing,  nevertheless  it  is  advisable 
to  combine  the  groups  of  fast  and  slow  readers  when- 
ever practicable.  The  latter  plan  should  always  be 
adopted  when  one  group  prepares  questions  or  outlines 
for  the  approval  or  use  of  the  other.  Joint  discussion 
of  such  material  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  features 
of  this  training.  Many  other  plans  and  devices  are 
available,  however,  in  the  articles  on  this  phase  of 
instruction  which  have  recently  been  published. 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         395 

Other  effective  methods.  The  teacher  can  arouse 
pupils  to  a  realization  of  the  importance  of  selecting 
the  main  points  in  a  lesson  by  having  them  consider 
test  questions  based  on  the  assignment  before  it  is  read. 
That  plan  conduces  to  purposeful  reading,  reading  in 
order  to  get  the  thought,  as  the  authors  have  shown 
by  an  experiment. 

A  section  consisting  of  186  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth-grade  pupils  was  divided  into  two  groups  of  equal 
comprehnesion  ability.  A  seven-page  article  on  "  Tu- 
berculosis" was  given  to  one  group,  with  instructions 
to  read  it  through  as  many  times  as  possible  in  a  thirty- 
minute  period.  The  same  article  was  given  to  the  sec- 
ond group,  with  instructions  to  read  it  carefully  and  to 
make  a  mental  note  of  the  answers  to  the  following 
questions. 

Name  ten  causes  of  tuberculosis. 
Describe  seven  symptoms  of  tuberculosis. 
Name  five  preventives  of  tuberculosis. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  thirty-minute  period  a  test 
based  on  the  material  was  given  to  both  groups.  Pupils 
who  had  had  the  questions  in  hand  while  they  read 
the  article  excelled  those  of  the  other  group  by  an  aver- 
age of  50.3  per  cent.  In  the  judgment  of  the  authors, 
this  experiment  shows  that  rapid,  thoughtful  reading 
can  be  achieved  by  making  speed  and  thought-getting 
the  objectives  of  reading  exercises. 

An  effective  test  for  determining  whether  or  not 
pupils  are  acquiring  the  ability  to  read  rapidly  and  well, 


306  SILENT  READING 

is  to  require  them  frequently  to  make  summaries  and 
outlines  of  the  subject-matter  of  their  assignments. 

Speed  in  reading  and  a  high  degree  of  comprehension 
may  be  obtained  by  asking  pupils  to  read  a  selection, 
they  being  informed  beforehand  that  their  rate  will  be 
charted,  and  that  when  they  have  completed  the  single 
reading  they  will  be  given  a  written  quiz,  the  result s 
of  which  will  also  be  tabulated.  Knowing  that  their 
standing  will  be  computed  and  charted  usually  causes 
pupils  to  exert  an  extra  effort  to  read  rapidly  and  un- 
derstandingly. 

Silent  reading  in  the  English  class.  As  we  have 
already  said,  many  high-school  pupils  have  not  learned 
to  reflect  as  they  read  or  to  assimilate  what  they  read. 
Such  pupils  have  little  if  any  idea  of  the  mental  proc- 
ess involved  in  reading.  They  regard  reading  as  n 
ceptive  process  rather  than  a  creative  one;  they  regard 
the  words  of  a  story  as  the  story  itself.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  words  are  only  a  means  of  kindling  the 
imagination :  words  only  cause  us  to  look  deeply  into 
the  thought  wells  of  past  experience.  Usually  it  is  not 
altogether  the  pupil's  fault  that  he  has  this  notion  of 
reading.  His  present  ability  to  read  has  been  deter- 
mined by  the  kind  of  material  he  has  read,  and  by 
the  way  in  which  he  has  been  permitted  to  read. 

The  English  teacher's  opportunity.  The  teacher  of 
upper-grade  English  has  a  great  opportunity  to  develop 
the  pupil's  ability  to  read  well,  and  to  train  him  in 
the  use  of  effective  study  habits  that  he  may  use  in 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         307 

all  his  work.  The  diversified  reading  material  used  in 
English  classes  offers  a  wide  range  in  the  choice  of 
subject-matter.  It  is  well  within  the  English  teacher's 
province  to  give  instruction  in  the  use  and  significance 
of  titles,  marginal  notes,  and  headings.  She  should 
also  teach  the  meaning  of  the  topical  sentence  and  key 
paragraph,  and  she  should  teach  children  how  to  orga- 
nize what  they  read  into  summaries  and  outlines.  Com- 
prehension, discrimination,  evaluation,  and  organization 
may  all  be  taught  in  the  English  class. 

It  is  this  oportunity  of  the  teachers  of  English  to 
conduct  such  training  economically  and  advantageously 
that  has  prompted  school  authorities,  who  recognize  the 
need  of  developing  a  scientific  method  of  teaching  read- 
ing to  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth-grade  pupils,  to  assign 
the  task  to  the  English  department.  The  diversified 
subject-matter  which  that  department  is  able  to  offer 
its  pupils,  the  opportunity  for  developing  different  men- 
tal sets  or  attitudes  as  a  consequence  of  that  diversity 
of  subject-matter,  and  the  intimate  relationship  that 
many  topics  discussed  in  the  English  class  have  to  the 
formation  of  effective  study  habits,  all  point  to  the 
English  department  as  the  proper  agency  for  teaching 
correct  reading  habits. 

Lyman's  plan  of  instruction.1  Lyman  proposes  that 
one  day  of  each  week  be  set  aside  for  conducting  labora- 
tory exercises  in  silent  reading  in  each  seventh  and 
eighth-grade  English  class.  The  remaining  four-fifths 


,    R,    I*      "The    teaching-   of   assimilative   reading   in    the 
junior    high    school."      School    Review,    Vol.    28,     (October)     1920. 


308  SILENT  READING 

of  the  time  allotted  to  English  is  to  be  devoted  to  the 
subjects  ordinarily  taught  —  literature,  oral  reading, 
composition,  grammar,  and  spelling  —  as  is  the  usual 
practice.  This  program,  outlined  and  discussed  on  the 
following  pages,  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  teachers 
of  English  who  do  not  have  time  to  work  out  a  course 
of  study  that  correlates  English  and  silent  reading. 
The  thirty-six  lessons  are  suggestive  of  the  type  of  ma- 
terial and  the  sort  of  methods  that  any  teacher  may 
use  as  a  basis  for  her  work. 

SILENT-READING  OBJECTIVES  FOR  THE  SEVENTH  GRADE 

First  mo n  th 

Speeding  up  the  silent  reading. 
a)     Tests  to  acquaint  pupils  with  their  rate  of  read- 
ing. 

i)     Attacking  new  words  boldly.     (Individual  diffi- 
culties in  word  analysis,  etc.) 

c)  Trying    to    see    several    words    at    one    time. 

(Grouping   and    phrasing   for   perception    of 
thought  groups.) 

d)  Learning  when   to  read  rapidly   and  Avhcn  to 

read  slowly. 

Second  month 

Purpose  in  reading.     (Purpose  and  problems,  old  and 
new;  goals.) 

a)     Does  the  reader  bring  a  problem  to  his  reading? 
6)     Does  the  reading  itself  suggest  a  problem? 

c)  Reading  carefully  to  find  one's  problem. 

d)  Finding  a  new  problem  growing  out  of  one's 

reading. 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT  309 

Third  month 

^Grasping  the  central  thought  in  reading.     (Unity  and 
forward  movement  of  thought.) 

a)  Is  the  master  idea  in  the  title? 

b)  Finding  the  clue  sentence   and  sign  posts. 

c)  Is  the  master  idea  repeated  in  each  paragraph? 

d)  Contribution  of  each  paragraph  to  the  master 

idea. 

Fourth  month 

Getting  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  reading.     (Compre- 
hending the  reach;  recalling  main  headings.) 

a)  Noting  the  plan  of  the  writer. 

b)  Selecting  the  outstanding  ideas. 

c)  Details  building  up  each  main  thought. 

d)  Stopping  to  recall  the  main  points. 

Fifth  month 

Helping  the  writer  in  reading.     (The  reader's  active 
participation.) 

a)  Two  minds  active  in  reading. 

b)  Reading  between  the  lines. 

c)  What   is  the   writer's   message  for  the   reader 

personally  ? 

d)  His  different  messages  for  other  people. 

Sixth  month 

Tying  up  what  we  know  with  our  reading.     (The  mean- 
ing of  assimilation.) 

a)  Recalling  similar  experiences  of  one's  own. 

b)  Recalling  different  experiences. 

c)  Asking  questions  of  the  writer. 

d)  Tying  up  one  lesson  with  another. 

Seventh  month 

Selection  in  our  reading.     (Personal  preferences.) 
a)     Discovering  personal  likes  in  reading. 


310  SILENT  READING 

b)  Following  the  prompting  of  curiosity. 

c)  Determining  the  worth  of  a  selection. 

d)  Passing  by  the  unimportant. 

Eighth  month 

Judging  values  in  our  reading.     (Weighing  the  worth 
of  statements.) 

a)     Whose  statement  may  one  rely  upon? 
6)     Having  our  own  opinions  when  we  read. 

c)  The  difference  between  knowing  and  guessing. 

d)  Being  perfectly  sure,  and  fair,  and  honest. 

Ninth  month 

Making  use   of  our   reading.      (Active  utilization   of 
results.) 

a)  Being  alert  to  solve  problems. 

6)  Storing  away  ideas  for  future  use. 

c)  Putting  information  into  action. 

d)  Various  ways  of  using  our  reading. 

The  work  of  the  first  month  is  intended  to  arouse 
the  pupil's  interest  in  reading.  It  centers  his  attention 
on  the  speed  and  accuracy  with  which  he  reads,  and 
enables  him  to  compare  his  own  achievements  with  the 
standard  norms.  Experiments  conducted  in  the  labora- 
tory school  of  the  University  of  Chicago  have  proved 
that  children  become  greatly  interested  in  working  out 
exercises  which  develop  class  standards  of  speed  and 
comprehension. 

The  work  of  the  second  month  discusses  the  purpose 
of  reading.  The  discussion  leads  directly  to  a  consid- 
eration of  the  way  many  pupils  attack  a  lesson  which 
has  been  assigned  by  instructing  the  class  to  "take  to 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         311 

the  bottom  of  page  so  and  so  for  tomorrow.'*  This 
month's  work  emphasizes  the  value  of  reading  with  a 
problem  in  mind,  and  the  need  of  the  reader's  having 
a  tendency  to  reflect  and  evaluate. 

During  the  third  and  fourth  months  pupils  learn  the 
most  economical  method  of  getting  at  the  substance  of 
what  they  read. 

Laboratory  activities  which  are  pleasing  and  profit- 
able to  pupils  of  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades 
are  presented  during  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
months.  The  children  are  taught  to  regard  their  read- 
ing as  an  exercise  to  which  they  are  privileged  to  con- 
tribute. They  come  to  regard  reading  as  a  game  in 
which  they  are  partners  with  the  author.  Their  minds 
become  actively  engaged  in  the  reading  process,  they 
help,  supplement,  inquire,  and  direct,  much  as  they  do 
in  the  work  of  the  oral-composition  class.  The  domi- 
nant activities  of  the  respective  months  are  helping, 
supplementing,  selecting,  and  evaluating. 

The  ninth  month  of  these  exercises  completes  the  cycle 
by  again  directing  attention  to  work  much  like  that 
of  the  first  and  second  months.  The  one  idea  now  up- 
permost in  the  children's  minds  is  to  make  the  active 
utilization  of  results  the  chief  goal  of  all  reading  done 
as  study. 

The  following  classroom  devices  may  be  used  to  teach 
objective  (&)  of  the  fifth  month's  work.  These  exer- 
cises are  suggestive  of  the  laboratory  method  of  pro- 
cedure. 


312 


SILENT  READING 


READING  BETWEEN  THE  LINES 

a) 

Have  you  ever  heard  the  expression  "reading  between 

the  lines"?     Let  us  make  our  own  explanation  of  that 

saying. 

READ:        Perseverance  is  a  great  element  of  success. 

THINK:  I  remember  when  I  worked  very  hard  and 
learned  a  difficult  lesson.  Another  time  I 
gave  up  in  disgust  and  made  a  failure.  The 
different  workers  in  our  grade  are  good  pupils. 

(ID 

READ:  "If  you  only  knock  long  enough  and  loud 
enough  at  the  gate  .  .  . 

THINK:  Of  course,  the  poet  can't  be  talking  of  a  real 
gate.  Knocking  long  and  loud  means  repeated 
efforts  to  succeed.  It  means  trying  over  and 
over  again. 

READ:  "...  you  are  sure  to  wake  up  some- 
body. " 

THINK:  J^oud  noise  does  wake  up  people.  But  the 
sentence  must  mean  more  than  waking  a  sleep- 
ing man;  it  means  attaining  success. 

(HI) 

READ:  "Count  that  day  lost  whose  low  descending 
sun  ...."' 

THINK:  Boy  Scouts  take  an  oath  to  do  a  kind  deed 
for  some  one  every  day.  Kind  deeds  are  not 
the  only  worthy  actions.  I  recall  one  piece 
of  hard  work;  I  recall  an  unkind  deed. 

READ:  "Views  from  thy  hand  no  worthy  action 
done." 

THINK:     (Pupils  should  develop  this  material.) 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT  3^3 

FILLING  IN  BETWEEN  THE  LINES 

CD 

READ:        "When  freedom  from  her  mountain  height 

Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air     ..." 
FILL  IN:    Pride  in  our  country's  flag. 

Pride  in  what  the  flag  stands  for. 
READ:        "She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night 
And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there." 
Do  you  not  see  that  we  do  not  read  merely  words  — 
not  little  black  marks  set  together  on  paper?     We  do 
not  read  merely  sentences  and  paragraphs.     We  read 
ideas  and  meanings  which  are  often  not  found  in  the 
cold  words  before  us.     "And  set  the  stars  of  glory 
there."     Only  seven  little  words!     But  when  we  read 
them  we  think  of  forty-eight  white  stars  on  a  blue 
ground,  each  star  standing  for  a  state.     We  see  the 
sisterhood  of  the  states.     They  are  stars  of  glory.    All 
that  our  fathers  have  done,  and.  all  that  their  fathers 
did,  makes  the  United  States  what  she  is.    There  is  no 
end  to  the  meaning  we  may  read  into  the  six  words, 
"     ...     set  the  stars  of  glory  there." 

(II) 

Have  the  pupils  select  a  paragraph  similar  to  the 
following  from  their  geography  or  some  other  textbook, 
check  any  two  lines  of  the  paragraph,  and  write  those 
two  lines  widely  apart  on  a  sheet  of  paper.  Each  pupil 
should  then  fill  in  between  the  two  lines  with  a  rough 
sketch,  a  diagram,  or  words  of  his  own  that  will  make 
clear  his  interpretation  of  the  line  chosen. 

In  many  coal  mines  there  are  rooms  that  have  been 
made  by  digging  out  the  coal.  There  is  always  dan- 
ger that  the  roof  of  such  a  room  may  cave  in  because 
of  the  great  weight  of  overlying  rock  and  earth.  To 


314  SILENT  READING 

prevent  this,  pillars  of  high-grade  coal  are  left  stand- 
ing. Sometimes,  too,  a  roof  of  coal  is  left.  When 
this  "pillar  and  stall "  method  is  used,  much  good 
coal  from  the  better  layers  is  never  taken  from  the 
ground.  There  is  another  method,  known  as  the  "long 
wall  method,"  in  which  the  miner  supports  the  roof 
behind  him  as  he  works,  by  filling  in  the  rock  and 
shale.  In  this  way,  all  the  coal  is  taken  out. 

(HI) 

READ:       "The  American  flag  has  been  the  symbol  of 

liberty    .     .     . 
THINK:     Fill  in  with  examples  from  the  years  1775, 

1864,  and  1918. 

READ:  "Men  rejoiced  in  the  American  flag  .  .  .  ft 
THINK  :  Pill  in  with  the  names  of  several  nations  that 

have  done  so. 
READ:       "When  Arnold  would  have  surrendered  West 

Point    ..." 
THINK:     Fill  in  with  a  brief  account  of  the  incident 

here  referred  to.     If  one  of  the  pupils  can 

relate  the  story,  let  him  do  so;  otherwise  the 

teacher  should  tell  it  to  the  class. 
READ:       "If  an  author  is  worth  anything,  you  will 

not  get  the  meaning  of  his  statement  all  at 

once." 
THINK:     Fill  in  by  giving  your  opinion  of  the  truth 

of  this  statement. 

(IV) 

A  variant  of  this  type  of  exercise,  equally  as  effective 
as  those  suggestions  offered,  is  to  ask  each  pupil  to 
write  a  sentence  about  one  of  his  lessons,  then  exchange 
his  paper  with  a  classmate  who  reads  between  the  lines 
and  writes  out  his  interpretation  of  the  sentence.  Some 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT 


sentences  used  in  this  exercise  should  be  written  on  the 
blackboard. 

Advanced  silent-reading  material.  The  well-or- 
ganized, highly  factual  material  found  in  textbooks  of 
history,  geography,  physiology,  and  nature  study  is  very 
valuable  for  use  as  the  basis  of  instruction  in  silent 
reading.  The  abundance  of  it,  and  its  similarity  to 
the  reading  matter  which  one  meets  in  later  life,  are 
also  points  in  favor  of  using  it  extensively  in  seventh 
and  eighth-grade  classes.  Teachers  should  use  the  period 
allotted  to  supervised  study  for  training  pupils  to  read 
such  material  effectively.  If  no  provision  is  made  for 
such  work,  then  occasionally  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  min- 
utes of  the  usual  recitation  period  should  be  devoted 
to  training  in  the  formation  of  correct  habits  of  study 
by  means  of  drill  in  silent  reading.  The  specimen  les- 
sons on  the  following  pages  are  suggestive  of  some  plans 
that  may  be  used. 

TYPE  STUDY:  A  HISTORY  LESSON 
Give  the  pupils  a  short  written  test  covering  the  main 
topics  of  the  assignment  before  they  read  it.  This  is 
to  ascertain  how  much  they  know  about  the  subject  to 
be  studied,  so  that  the  amount  they  gain  from  reading 
the  assignment  may  be  more  accurately  determined.  As 
soon  as  the  preliminary  test  has  been  given,  pupils 
should  read  the  assignment  through  once  and  record 
their  time.  Then  give  the  questions  suggested  on  page 
317,  score  the  papers,  and  chart  the  results.  Interest 


316  SILENT  READING 

may  be  added  to  this  work  by  having  each  pupil  chart 
his  own  results  and  compare  his  scores  with  the  class 
average. 

The  aim  of  this  plan  is  to  motivate  reading  through 
the  preliminary  test,  by  showing  pupils  that  the  assign- 
ment contains  material  about  which  they  know  very 
little.  When  they  learn  that,  they  tend  to  read  pur- 
posefully because  they  have  the  main  topics  in  mind. 

Immigration1 

The  first  marked  invasion,  that  of  the  Irish  and  Ger- 
mans, opened  between  1840  and  1850.  Many  of  the 
Irish  stopped  in  the  cities  and  sought  employment 
as  manual  laborers,  or  wont  out  into  the  construction 
camps  where  railways  and  canals  were  built.  The 
Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  seemed  from  the  first 
to  prefer  farming.  Perhaps  a  major  portion  of  them 
went  west  and  bought  land  or  entered  government 
"domains"  opened  to  settlers. 

**•••••• 

A  second  era  in  the  history  of  immigration  opened 
about  1890.  The  new  period  was  marked,  in  the  first 
place,  by  a  decided  change  in  the  nationality  of  the 
immigrants.  The  number  coming  from  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  Germany  fell  off  rapidly,  and  the  pro- 
portion from  Scandinavian  countries  did  not  increase. 
By  1896  the  immigrants  from  Austria-Hungary,  Italy, 
and  Russia  greatly  outnumbered  those  from  north  arid 
west  Europe,  and  in  1910  nine-tenths  of  all  the  immi- 
grants arriving  in  the  United  States  were  from  the 
south  and  west  of  Europe.  Jews  who  by  the  tens 
of  thousands  were  driven  out  of  Russia  and  Roumania 

1ThIs  selection  Is  taken  from  Beard  and  Barley's  The  History 
of  the  American  People  (pp.  496-502)  published  by  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  New  York  City. 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT 

by  cruel  oppression,  really  had  no  choice  but  to  flee 
to  the  United  States. 

******** 

The  newcomers  had  to  settle  in  cities.  The  Rus- 
sian Jews  entered  the  ready-made  garment  trade  in 
the  great  centers  like  New  York,  Rochester,  and  Chi- 
cago. Hungarians,  Italians,  Slovaks,  and  Poles  took 
up  heavy  tasks  like  mining  and  iron  working,  which 
called  for  more  physical  strength.  Immigrants  dur- 
ing this  period  built  the  railroads,  developed  the 
mines,  manned  the  coke  ovens  and  blast  furnaces,  made 
clothing,  and,  in  fact,  furnished  the  labor  for  most 
of  the  country. 

Questions 

1.  What  two  nationalities  composed  the  first  marked 

invasion  of  immigrants? 

2.  Where  did  those  immigrants  settle? 

3.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  lull  in  immigration? 

4.  Why  did  the  "Homestead  Act"  induce  foreign- 

ers to  come  to  this  country? 

5.  Name  five  nationalities  that  came  from  northern 

Europe  immediately  after  the  Civil  War? 

6.  What  change  was  there  in  the  second  era  ? 

7.  Where  did  these  immigrants  settle? 

8.  Name  four  evil  effects  which  the  low  rates  of 

steamship  companies  and  their  false  advertis- 
ing in  Europe  have  on  the  United  States? 

There  are  several  other  good  plans  for  studying  the 
history  assignment,  each  quite  as  effective  as  the  one 
we  have  outlined  in  detail.  Pupils  may  be  asked  to 
"skim"  the  material  so  as  to  find  answers  to  particular 
questions.  That  exercise  tends  to  form  good  motor 
habits  in  reading,  broad  eye-span,  and  short  duration 


318  SILENT  READING 

of  fixation.  They  may  be  asked  to  prepare  questions 
for  class  discussion  after  reading  this  and  similar  sub- 
ject-matter once,  or  they  may  read  the  assignment  once, 
guided  by  three  or  four  questions  written  on  the  black- 
board. 

Forming  good  study  habits.  Many  students  fre- 
quently reach  the  eighth  grade  with  few  desirable  study 
habits.  They  are  unable  to  concentrate  on  what  they 
read,  to  read  closely,  or  to  comprehend  rapidly  and  sat- 
isfactorily. Such  pupils  believe  they  are  studying  hard 
when  they  are  only  marking  time.  A  detailed  test  which 
requires  the  recall  of  data  contained  in  the  assignment 
often  shocks  those  pupils  out  of  their  indifference  by 
showing  thorn  how  loosely  and  undiscriminatingly  they 
really  do  read.  The  lesson  plan  outlined  below  was 
successfully  used  in  an  eighth -grade  class  whose  mem- 
bers made  an  average  score  of  only  50  per  cent  before 
the  plan  was  adopted.  The  test  included  in  this  method 
caused  pupils  to  realize  how  superficially  they  read  and 
made  them  want  to  use  a  part  of  each  recitation  period 
for  learning  how  to  read. 

TYPE  STUDY:  A  GEOGRAPHY  LESSON 
Towards  the  close  of  a  geography  lesson  suggest  that 
pupils  spend  the  remainder  of  the  period  reading  a 
part  of  the  next  day's  assignment.  Determine  how 
many  paragraphs  shall  be  read,  and  instruct  pupils  to 
close  their  books  when  they  read  the  material  once,  as 
a  sign  that  they  have  finished.  Note  each  pupil's  .time 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT  3^9 

and  rank  him  as  to  rate.  When  all  have  finished,  test 
the  class  with  a  list  of  questions  which  thoroughly  cover 
the  assignment. 

The  following  lesson  assignment1  is  typical  of  the 
amount  of  material  that  should  be  used  for  this  exer- 
cise. The  questions  indicate  the  type  that  should  be 
used. 

Chicago's   Commercial  Advantages 

For  a  long  time  there  was  much  rivalry  between 
St.  Louis  and  Chicago  to  see  which  should  outgrow 
the  other.  Now  Chicago  is  three  and  a  half  times 
as  large  as  St.  Louis,  and  surpasses  all  other  cities 
in  the  North  Central  States  much  as  New  York  sur- 
passes those  in  the  Northeastern  States.  What  has 
led  to  such  remarkable  growth? 

There  are  three  facts  about  its  location  that  give 
Chicago  a  great  advantage  for  trade  in  farm  products. 

First,  it  is  much  nearer  the  center  of  this  remark- 
ably productive  region  than  is  St.  Louis.  The  lead- 
ing wheat  region  lies  to  the  northwest,  the  Corn  Belt 
is  close  at  hand,  and  the  dairy  section  is  very  near. 

Second,  the  railroads  connecting  our  northwestern 
states  with  the  northeastern  group  must  pass  around 
the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  There  is  no  route 
farther  north  that  they  can  easily  take.  Also,  goods 
bound  for  the  East  from  districts  west  and  south- 
west of  Chicago  can  most  easily  go  by  way  of  the 
same  city.  Thus  Chicago  is  a  natural  meeting  place 
for  routes  connecting  the  East  and  the  West  and  has 
become  the  greatest  railroad  center  in  the  world. 
There  are  now  more  than  thirty  important  railroads 

lrThe  material  on  which  this  assignment  is  based  is  taken 
from  McMurry  and  Parkins'  Advanced  Geography  (pp.  79.  80) 
published  by  The  Macmillan  Company.  New  York  City. 


320  SILENT  READING 

that  have  their  terminals  in  that  city.  Yet  no  rail- 
road passes  through  the  city,  though  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  trains  pass  directly  through  New  York,  a 
much  larger  city,  on  their  way  from  Washington  and 
Pittsburgh  to  Boston.  How  must  this  fact  affect  the 
handling  of  freight  in  Chicago? 

With  these  advantages,  it  is  not  strange  that  Chi- 
cago has  more  trade  in  farm  products  than  any  of 
the  other  cities  of  this  section.  While  Minneapolis 
is  the  greatest  wheat  market,  Chicago  is  the  greatest 
grain  market,  its  trade  in  corn,  oats,  and  other  grains 
besides  wheat  being  very  extensive.  It  receives  three 
times  as  much  live  stock  as  St.  Louis,  and  sends  forth 
more  meat  products  than  any  other  city  in  the  world. 

The  Union  Stockyards,  where  the  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs  are  received  and  where  the  meat  is  packed,  sur- 
pass anything  else  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  The 
yards  and  factories  are  so  complete  an  organization 
that  thoy  resemble  a  city  in  themselves;  and  that 
section  of  Chicago  has  come  to  be  known  as  Packing- 
town.  Tt  is  worth  a  day's  visit.  Over  60,000  men 
are  employed  there,  and  the  products  have  an  annual 
value  of  nearly  a  billion  dollars. 


Questions 

1.  How  much  larger  is  Chicago  than  St.  Louis? 

2.  How  may  Chicago  be  compared  to  New  York 

City? 

3.  Give  three  reasons  why  Chicago  is  larger  than 
^       St.  Louis. 

4.  How  may  you  contrast  Chicago  with  Minneapo- 

lis? 

5.  Compare  the  amount  of  live  stock  sent  to  Chi- 

cago with  that  sent  to  St.  Louis. 

6.  What  and  where  is  Packingtown? 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         321 

7.  How  many  thousand  men  are  employed  in  Pack- 

ingtown  ? 

8.  What  is  the  value  of  the  annual  output  of  the 

packing  industries  of  Chicago? 

Reading  arithmetic  problems.  It  is  well  known  that 
many  pupils  who  can  give  a  coherent  reproduction  of 
the  situations  recounted  and  described  in  four  or  five 
pages  of  narrative  material  are  often  unable  to  state 
the  conditions  set  forth  in  the  four  or  five  lines  of  an 
arithmetic  problem.  Many  teachers,  believing  that  a 
pupil's  inability  to  solve  arithmetic  problems  is  due  to 
his  failure  to  understand  what  he  reads,  try  to  over- 
come the  difficulty  by  asking  pupils  to  "read  the  prob- 
lem carefully. ' '  That  usually  results  in  reading  a  prob- 
lem a  second  time  or  in  reading  it  orally;  neither  prac- 
tice remedies  the  difficulty.  It  seems  likely  that  pupils 
are  unable  to  read  problems  accurately  because  they 
have  not  been  trained  to  "get  the  story"  of  a  problem. 
This  view  is  largely  supported  by  the  results  of  experi- 
ments which  seem  to  prove  that  the  successful  reading 
of  different  kinds  of  material  demands  different  read- 
ing abilities,  which,  in  turn,  must  be  developed  by  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  training. 

A  recent  study1  describes  the  condition  that  exists 
and  suggests  a  method  of  devising  means  to  remedy  it. 

Problems  in  books  so  often  read:  "If  a  man  < 
.  .  ,  etc.,"  "Find  the  cost  when  .  .  .  ,  etc.," 
or  "At  6  cents  for  25,  what  will  3  dozen  articles  cost?" 

1Wilson.  Estaline.  "Improving:  the  ability  to  read  arithmetic 
problems."  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  22,  (January)  1922. 


322  SILENT  READING 

This  flat,  impersonal  form  of  expression  has  no  doubt 
grown  out  of  providing  enough  problems  in  a  book 
to  supply  the  needed  drill;  but  it  works  disaster  in 
the  training  of  pupils.  Once  we  become  aware  of 
the  dull  and  meaningless  character  of  arithmetic  read- 
ing, we  realize  that  we  are  confronted  with  two  im- 
portant que'stions:  (a)  To  what  extent  can  we  aid 
pupils  to  comprehend  the  real  situation  which  is  in- 
volved in  the  problem?  (6)  To  what  extent  can  fluent 
and  correct  reading  contribute  to  the  actual  solving 
of  the  problem? 

Making  the  problem  real.  The  first  step  in  teaching 
pupils  to  read  problem  material  is  to  make  the  story 
in  the  problem  so  real  and  so  vivid  that  they  will  realize 
the  situation  set  forth.  Some  methods  of  doing  this, 
successfully  used  by  a  group  of  Cincinnati  teachers, 
are  described  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

The  teachers  first  of  all  had  the  pupils  study  the 
problems  assigned,  just  as  they  ordinarily  studied  other 
reading  lessons  —  in  this  instance,  however,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  getting  the  thought  of  the  text  without  regard 
to  the  data  of  the  problem.  To  that  end  the  teacher 
placed  such  questions  on  the  blackboard  as  would  aid 
pupils  to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  the  problems.  Some- 
times the  pupils  suggested  questions.  An  example  of 
this  device  is  shown  by  the  following  problem  and  the 
accompanying  questions  based  on  it. 

James  sold  36  copies  of  the  Saturday  Evening  Post 
at  5  cents  each.  He  kept  %  of  the  money.  With  the 
remainder  he  bought  daily  papers  at  %  cents  each. 
How  many  papers  did  he  buy? 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT  323 

1.  How  could  you  find  out  how  much  James  would 

have  after  he  sold  his  copies  of  the  Post? 

2.  What  part  of  his  money  did  he  spend  for  daily 

papers? 

3.  What  part  did  he  keep  ?    What  did  he  probably 

do  with  his  money? 

4.  Why  do  you  think  he  did  not  spend  it  all  for 

daily  papers? 

5.  How  did  the  cost  of  a  daily  paper  compare  with 

the  cost  of  a  Post  ? 

6.  If  you  know  how  much  money  he  spent  for  daily 

papers,  and  the  cost  of  each  one,  how  will 
you  find  out  how  many  he  bought? 

Another  plan  was  the  use  of  the  facts  of  a  problem 
as  the  plot  of  a  story.  When  doing  this  sort  of  work, 
the  pupils  read  between  the  lines  and  supplied  details 
that  made  the  problems  real.  The  dull  facts  of  buying 
and  selling  were  made  the  basis  of  imaginary  experi- 
ences. 

Such  a  problem  as  "What  was  the  cost  of  6  pounds 
of  sugar  at  8  cents  a  pound,  6  cans  of  milk  at  5  cents 
a  can,  and  2  dozen  eggs  at  30  cents  a  dozen  ?"  becomes 
for  Louise  a  shopping  situation.  Her  mother,  surprised 
by  unexpected  guests,  wants  to  make  a  cake.  Louise 
has  to  make  a  hurried  trip  to  the  grocery  to  obtain  the 
three  necessary  articles  —  eggs,  sugar,  milk.  She  keeps 
repeating  the  names  of  the  articles  so  as  not  to  forget 
the  items.  The  grocer  quotes  prices  as  she  buys  each 
articlp:  "Eggs  are  30  cents  today;  sugar  is  down  to 
8  cents  a  pound,  etc."  She  returns  home,  reports  her 
total  expenditure  to  her  mother,  and  the  latter,  in  turn, 


324  SILENT  READING 

counts  up  the  cost  again  to  see  if  Louise  has  figured 
correctly. 

The  same  figures  suggest  quite  a  different  situation 
to  another  pupil.  The  Boy  Scout  troop  plans  a  hike. 
Fred's  share  of  the  necessary  eats  for  the  crowd  con- 
sists of  sugar  and  milk  for  the  cocoa,  and  eggs  to  fry 
over  the  camp  fire.  Since  each  scout  is  to  present  hi- 
bill  in  order  that  all  may  share  equally  in  the  total 
expense,  Fred  carefully  figures  the  cost  of  the  sujrnr. 
eggs,  and  milk,  and  presents  his  bill  in  a  business-like 
manner  to  the  scout  master. 

In  another  class  the  teacher  asked  the  pupils  to  d 
a  plan  for  dramatizing  the  story  of  the  problems.  The 
few  minutes  allowed  for  preparing  work  of  this  sort 
usually  resulted  in  a  realistic  portrayal  of  many  strik- 
ing situations.  One  scene  depicted  an  automobile  show 
An  enthusiastic  salesman  greeted  Farmer  Jones  and  his 
family,  showed  them  various  cars,  quoted  the  discount ^. 
and  rapidly  computed  the  amounts  to  be  saved  by  avail- 
ing oneself  of  the  various  percentages  of  discount.  An- 
other effective  scene  depicted  a  millinery  shop  where 
customers  called  to  inquire  the  prices  of  hats  they  had 
seen  advertised. 

The  value  of  the  method.  The  methods  described 
were  used  by  teachers  who  sought  to  measure  their  effi- 
cacy in  terms  of  data  showing  improved  ability  to  solve 
problems.  One  teacher's  report  of  the  results  obtained 
in  a  sixth-grade  class  is  substantially  as  follows.  The 
pupils  were  first  tested  with  the  Stone  Standardized 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         305 

Reasoning  Test  in  Arithmetic.  Three  ten-minute  periods 
per  week  for  five  weeks  were  then  devoted  to  reading 
problems  by  using  the  question  method  already  de- 
scribed; following  that,  Stone's  test  was  again  given 
and  the  two  sets  of  results  were  compared.  The  teacher 
reports  that  "the  resulting  improvement  of  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  pupils  and  the  raising  of  the  class  aver- 
ages from  below  standard  to  above  seem  satisfactory 
returns  for  the  time  spent  in  problem-reading  work." 

Another  teacher,  whose  class  had  developed  consider- 
able ability  to  make  stories  from  the  problems,  tried  to 
evaluate  the  time  spent  in  this  preliminary  problem 
reading  in  terms  of  increased  ability  to  solve  the  prob- 
lems. She  first  placed  a  series,  of  problems  on  the 
blackboard  and  asked  the  class  to  solve  them  without 
doing  the  preliminary  reading  and  story  making.  On 
the  following  day  the  pupils  were  allowed  to  construct 
stories  based  on  the  same  problems.  Following  that, 
they  solved  the  problems.  In  comparing  the  results  of 
the  two  days '  work,  the  class  medians  showed  an  increase 
of  14  per  cent  in  rate  and  30  per  cent  in  accuracy. 

Obviously  the  pupils  were  at  an  advantage  when  they 
solved  the  problems  the  second  time;  they  had  profited 
to  some  extent  by  the  first  reading,  although  no  help 
had  been  given  at  that  time.  It  would  seem,  however, 
that  inasmuch  as  the  class  gained  30  per  cent  in  ability 
to  read,  although  only  one  period  was  used  for  that 
work,  that  the  time  was  well  spent.  Further  evidence 
of  the  effectiveness  of  this  method  is  shown  by  the  high 


326  SILENT  READING 

score  which  the  group  made  when  tested  by  the  Monroe 
Standard  Reasoning  Test  in  Arithmetic  after  they  had 
been  working  on  this  plan  for  some  time.  Their  score 
on  "correct  principle"  was  32,  the  standard  being  only 
17;  for  "correct  answers"  the  class  scored  17,  the  stand- 
ard being  9.7. 

A  third  plan,  which  included  story-telling  and  drama- 
tization, was  used  in  an  "opportunity  class"  of  twenty 
children.  Nineteen  of  this  group  had  been  given  intelli- 
gence tests.  Of  those,  eight  had  I.  Q.'s  ranging  from 
90  to  80,  six  ranging  from  80  to  70,  five  ranging  from 
70  to  60.  Before  giving  any  training  in  problem  read- 
ing the  pupils  were  tested  with  Peet  and  Dearborn's 
Progress  Test  in  Arithmetic.  After  six  weeks  of  train- 
ing, during  which  the  pupils  spent  approximately  ninety 
minutes  weekly  in  solving  problems  after  carefully  read- 
ing them,  the  group  was  again  tested  with  the  same 
test,  no  mention  being  made  of  its  previous  use.  The 
second  test  showed  a  median  score  of  72,  as  compared 
with  a  median  score  of  28  made  on  the  first  test. 

Although  the  attempts  to  evaluate  methods  of  teach- 
ing pupils  to  rend  arithmetic  problems  have  not  yet 
been  made  extensively  enough  to  warrant  the  findings 
as  conclusive,  nevertheless  the  efforts  that  we  have  de- 
scribed include  several  pieces  of  splendid  pioneer  work 
in  this  field.  Experiments  already  made  have  served 
their  purpose  well,  if  they  have  done  nothing  other  than 
prove  the  feasibility  of  such  work  to  investigators  who 
may  later  make  more  extensive  studies  by  using  more 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         327 

elaborate  methods.  But  the  experiments  already  con- 
ducted have  actually  accomplished  another  thing.  They 
have  demonstrated  that  when  pupils  once  catch  the  spirit 
of  reading  interesting  situations  into  the  number  facts 
of  their  arithmetic  problems,  they  undertake  their  work 
with  more  enthusiasm  and  with  increased  chances  of 
success.  Pupils  show  great  interest  in  "making  up 
stories/*  in  dealing  with  problems  in  this  fashion.  That 
such  is  true  need  not  appear  unreasonable;  it  is  very 
likely  that  pupils  have  long  been  doing  this  very  thing 
although  teachers  were  not  aware  of  it.  The  really 
surprising  fact  is  that  there  are  some  children  who 
cannot  do  the  work  at  all  —  pupils  to  whom  figures  are 
something  quite  apart  from  any  imagined  situation. 

Dramatizations  and  school  pageants.  Pageants, 
projects,  and  dramatizations  are  now  generally  recog- 
nized as  effective  pedagogic  devices,  and  as  a  consequence 
they  are  rapidly  coming  into  favor  as  teaching  agencies. 
This  is  in  keeping  with  the  trend  of  modern  pedagogy, 
which  insists  that  good  citizenship  and  morality  can 
not  be  taught  to  the  child;  he  must  live  them.  Knowl- 
edge is  not  virtue  or  power  except  to  the  degree  that 
it  functions  in  life.  Thus,  the  teacher's  problem  is  that 
of  establishing  wholesome  reactions,  habits,  and  atti- 
tudes in  the  minds  of  her  pupils.  Many  now  believe 
that  this  problem  can  best  be  solved  by  making  the 
activities  of  daily  life  the  subject-matter  of  instruction, 
and  focusing  the  child's  interest  and  efforts  upon  a 
solution  of  the  difficulties  which  daily  life  presents. 


328  SILENT  READING 

This  method  of  instruction  gives  the  child  opportunity 
to  think  and  to  act  independently,  thus  establishing 
habits  and  attitudes  conducive  to  successful  living. 

The  advantage  of  making  daily  activities  the  basis 
of  class  projects  may  readily  be  determined  by  plan- 
ning a  series  of  lessons  on  health,  food,  sleep,  home 
making,  city  planning,  fire  prevention,  or  similar  topics. 
A  typical  project  of  this  kind,  based  on  fire  prevention, 
was  worked  out  by  an  eighth-grade  class  as  described 
below. 

A  lesson  on  "fire  prevention."  For  three  \v« ••  -Us 
teacher  and  pupils  spent  the  daily  twenty-five  mimito 
period  discussing  fire  loss  and  firo  prevention,  gathering 
data,  and  reaching  conclusions.  They  finally  embodied 
the  results  of  their  work  in  concrete  form,  evidence 
of  their  own  grasp  of  the  subject  and  instructive  to 
others  who  had  had  no  share  in  the  work. 

The  first  day  was  spent  discussing  how  best  to  attack 
the  problem  of  fire  prevention.  The  pupils  agreed  upon 
three  objectives  which  should  guide  them  in  their  read- 
ing and  search  for  information:  (1)  How  serious  is 
the  problem  of  fire  prevention  in  the  state  and  nation, 
as  indicated  by  the  destruction  of  life  and  property 
during  the  past  yeart  (2)  What  are  the  chief  causes 
of  fires f  (3)  What  can  be  done  to  prevent  fires? 

With  those  topics  in  mind,  the  pupils  began  reading 
material  gathered  from  newspapers,  magazines,  and 
pamphlets  furnished  by  the  fire  insurance  companies. 
State  and  federal  publications  were  also  used.  At  the 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT         329 

conclusion  of  three  weeks  of  study  the  pupils  agreed 
that  although  destructive  fires  are  in  general  due  to 
carelessness,  which  seems  to  be  an  American  trait,  the 
specific  causes  of  most  of  them  are  the  following :  The 
careless  handling  of  kerosene,  gasoline,  gas,  and  matches ; 
lack  of  attention  to  bonfires  and  burning  rubbish ;  care- 
less disposition  of  lighted  cigars  and  cigarettes;  de- 
fective chimneys  and  electrical  wiring;  spontaneous 
combustion;  lightning. 

Presenting1  the  pag-eant.  Having  gathered  the  ma- 
terial, evaluated  and  organized  it,  and  reached  certain 
conclusions,  the  pupils  desired  to  present  their  findings 
in  some  way  which  would  effectively  inform  the  other 
pupils  and  the  public  about  the  danger  of  fires  and 
ways  to  prevent  them.  Accordingly,  the  class  decided 
to  present  a  pageant  which  should  make  the  audience 
realize  that  carelessness  is  the  principal  cause  of  the 
unnecessary  destruction  of  life  and  property  by  fire. 
The  pageant  was  arranged  to  represent  a  mock  trial 
portrayed  by  pupils  who  played  the  parts  of  judge, 
jury,  lawyers,  and  eleven  culprits,  each  of  whom  im- 
personated one  of  the  chief  causes  of  fires.  Each  of 
the  culprits  was  appropriately  dressed  and  placarded; 
for  instance,  Mr.  Kerosene  was  clad  in  a  large  kerosene 
can  made  of  cardboard  and  properly  labeled.  Each 
culprit  was  called  before  judge  and  jury,  there  to  be 
charged  with  his  alleged  crimes ;  each,  in  turn,  defended 
himself  in  a  three-minute  speech.  When  all  the  culprits 
had  been  heard,  the  lawyers  summed  up  their  state- 


330  SILENT  READING 

merits  and  finally  the  judge  acquitted  them.  The  sheriff 
then  brought  "  Carelessness "  before  the  court,  where 
he  was  tried,  found  guilty,  and  sentenced. 

The  value  of  the  pageant.  The  four  hundred  par- 
ents and  pupils  who  saw  this  pageant  were  benefited 
by  the  forceful  presentation  of  facts,  as  were  also  the 
pupils  who  worked  out  the  material.  The  latter,  of 
course,  received  the  greatest  benefit  because  they  had 
actually  lived  the  work.  They  learned  the  value  of 
magazines  and  pamphlets  as  sources  of  material  bearing 
on  their  projects.  They  learned  to  read  rapidly  and 
well,  because  they  had  to  collect  a  large  amount  of  data 
in  a  comparatively  short  time.  They  learned  to  com- 
prehend, because  each  pupil  had  to  read  with  a  purpose 
in  order  to  make  his  contribution  to  the  class  project. 

The  value  of  the  entire  exercise  as  a  means  of  teach- 
ing pupils  to  organize  was  noteworthy.  Each  child 
had  to  evaluate  what  he  read  in  order  to  sift  out  of 
his  material  some  sound  arguments  with  which  to  sup- 
port his  plea  of  "not  guilty."  The  teacher's  demand 
for  daily  two-minute  reports  throughout  the  discussion 
of  the  project  gave  constant  practice  in  organization. 

Retention  was  secured  not  only  because  pupils  were 
required  to  read  purposefully  and  to  organize  what  they 
read,  but  also  because  they  had  to  prepare  what  they 
read  for  use  in  the  future. 

Speed  and  comprehension  drills  conducted  under  time 
pressure  added  to  the  value  of  all  this  work.  It  was 
a  simple  matter  to  make  use  of  those  because  of  the 


GRADES  SEVEN  AND  EIGHT 


331 


many  questions  raised  in  class,  the  answers  to  which 
might  be  found  in  the  material  being  used. 

The  chief  value  of  the  entire  project  was  that  it  taught 
pupils  how  to  read  rapidly  and  effectively  with  a  mini- 
mum expenditure  of  time  and  effort,  and  moreover  it 
kept  the  entire  class  highly  interested  because  all  were 
working  toward  a  definite  objective. 

SUMMARY 

1.  The  importance  of  developing  good  study  habits  should 
be  emphasized  in  all  seventh  and  eighth-grade  classes. 

2.  Not  only  should  reading  be  taught  as  such,  but  every 
lesson  in  every  subject  should  be  used  to  develop  the 
pupils  ability  to  read   rapidly  and  to  comprehend,   or- 
ganize, and  retain  what  he  reads. 

3.  The  teacher  can  arouse  the  pupils'  interest  in  acquiring 
economical   methods    of  study  by   testing  and   charting 
the  results  of  pupils'  achievements  from  time  to  time, 
and  by  using  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  of  certain 
recitation    periods    for    training    in    effective    reading 
habits. 

4.  Effective  method^  of  economical  study  have  been  worked 
out  in  experiments. 

5.  Correct   study   habits   may  be   developed   by   means   of 
the    material    usually    studied    in    arithmetic,    history, 
geography,  and  English  classes. 

6.  Pamphlets   are  good   sources   of  supplementary  reading 
material. 

7.  Paeeants  are  a  valuable  means  of  presenting  the  facts 
of  civics. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 

Gray.  W.  S.  "The  relation  between  study  and  reading." 
Addresses  and  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education 
Association,  Vol.  57,  1919. 


332  SILENT  READING 

Horn,  Ernest.     "A  constructive  program  in  silent  reading." 

Journal  of  Educational  Research,  Vol.  3,   (May)   1921. 
Sand  wick,    R.    L.       How    to    Study    and    What    to    stmiy. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1915. 
Smith,    Bertha    M.       "Efficiency    in    assimilating    reading." 

School  Review,  Vol.  25,   (November)   1917. 
Theisen,  W.  W.     "Provision  for  individual  differences  in  the 

teaching  of   reading."      Journal   of  Educational   Research, 

Vol.  2,  (September)  1920. 
Whlpple,  G.  M.     How  to  Study  Effectively.     Public   School 

Publishing  Company,    Bloomington,   Illinois,   1916. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
MOTIVATION  OF  DRILL  WORK  IN  READING 

Why  drill  work  is  necessary.  If  the  child  is  to  ac- 
quire effective  study  habits  from  his  various  reading 
experiences,  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  situations 
that  enable  him  definitely  to  focus  his  attention  upon 
that  aim.  In  general,  wholesome  study  habits  result 
from  a  rich  course  of  study,  an  ample  and  well-selected 
library,  definite  lesson  assignments,  broad  reading,  and 
good  methods  applied  to  the  recitation.  However,  there 
is  yet  another  factor:  Interesting  drill  work  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  if  effective  study  habits  are  to  be  ac- 
quired economically. 

Can  interest  in  drill  work  be  maintained?  Children 
may  be  forced  through  a  series  of  physical  gymnastics 
with  little  skill  as  a  result.  Likewise,  uninteresting 
reading  exercises  are  practically  useless.  A  mass  of 
evidence  accumulated  by  experiment  proves  that  accur- 
acy and  speed  in  reading  may  often  be  greatly  increased 
by  means  of  interesting  drill  exercises.  An  experiment 
cited  in  Chapter  III  showed  how  a  few  minutes  of  con- 
centrated drill  each  day  for  one  month  appreciably  af- 
fected the  reading  rate  and  accuracy  of  the  pupils. 

333 


334  SILENT  READING 

Drill  work  is  psychologically  sound.  Children  in- 
stinctively love  rhythm.  They  enjoy  doing  certain  men- 
tal  and  physical  exercises  even  for  a  considerable  time 
after  perfection  has  been  reached.  This  fact  prevents 
drill  work  from  being  a  monotonous  grind.  Learning 
is  a  process  of  neural  connecting  and  permanence  of 
connections.  Other  things  being  equal,  those  nerve  paths 
which  are  most  frequently  exercised  become  stronger. 
But  if  the  exercise  of  neural  paths  is  not  accompanied 
by  a  feeling  of  satisfaction,  —  a  "mental  set"  of  ap- 
proval, desire,  and  readiness  to  act,  —  little  will  be  ac- 
complished by  the  drill  or  exercise.  It  is  evident,  then, 
that  interest  is  absolutely  necessary  if  achievement  is 
to  be  at  all  commensurate  with  the  effort  expended. 

Regardless  of  the  fact  that  there  is  an  innate  tend- 
ency to  enjoy  drill  because  of  the  factors  we  have 
mentioned,  pupils  tire  of  the  intensive  exercises  sug- 
gested in  previous  chapters,  unless  those  are  properly 
administered.  O'Brien1  found  that  the  best  results  in 
reading  drills  are  secured  when  the  reading  stretch  is 
from  two  to  four  minutes  in  length.  The  length  of 
drill  should,  of  course,  vary  in  the  different  grades. 
Since  the  element  of  fatigue  quickly  sets  in  when  pupils 
are  forced  to  concentrate  on  reading  done  under  time 
pressure,  it  is  well  to  allow  a  minute  or  two  for  rest 
between  the  intensive  reading  stretches.  This  rest  period 
may  be  devoted  entirely  to  relaxation.  The  time  can 
be  more  profitably  used,  however,  by  asking  a  ques- 

'O'Brien.  J.  A.  Rilent  Reading.  The  Macmlllan  Company, 
N«W  York  City.  1921. 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK  335 

tion  or  two  about  the  material  just  read.  This  exer- 
cise can  be  varied  by  calling  upon  some  of  the  pupils 
for  an  oral  reproduction. 

Motivating  drill  work.  In  so  far  as  possible,  all 
drill  work  should  be  pupil-motivated;  that  is,  the  mo- 
tive or  desire  to  do  the  thing  should  come  from  the 
pupil.  The  teacher  should  be  careful  to  point  out  the 
many  advantages  of  rapid,  purposeful,  and  thorough 
reading  habits.  Their  own  records  of  slowness  in  rate 
and  inefficiency  in  thought-getting,  as  revealed  by  stand- 
ard tests,  may  awaken  pupils  to  a  serious  consideration 
of  their  reading  problems.  The  use  of  individual  and 
group  charts  as  a  stimulus  to  better  reading  often  proves 
an  effective  device.  In  brief,  pupils  should  be  made 
to  feel  that  they  will  reap  results  to  the  degree  that 
they  earnestly  and  enthusiastically  enter  upon  the  un- 
dertaking. 

Often  a  child  who  tries  to  read  a  very  interesting 
story  finds  that  his  lack  of  familiarity  with  certain 
important  words  and  phrases  handicaps  him  badly. 
This  may  be  made  a  motivation  for  word  drill  of  some 
sort.  The  child  feels  the  necessity  for  such  drill,  and 
consequently  attacks  the  words  with  the  proper  mental 
set  because  he  knows  that  a  mastery  of  them  assures 
him  greater  enjoyment.  Such  evidence  shows  that  word 
drills  should  follow  the  reading  study  period. 

Motivation  by  the  teacher.  Occasionally  the  teacher 
will  find  it  necessary  to  create  a  motive  for  study  and 
drill  work  by  taking  the  initiative.  This  is  called 


336  SILENT  READING 

teacher-motivation.  Such  is  likely  to  be  the  case  when 
the  course  of  study  is  limited  in  scope  and  in  its  appeal 
to  the  experiences  of  the  child.  Not  infrequently  there 
is  a  dearth  of  supplementary  reading  material  in  a 
school.  The  scholastic  ideals  of  the  school  and  com- 
munity may  be  below  average.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, pupils  may  see  little  or  no  value  in  the  drills 
or  subject-matter  presented.  However,  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  teacher  for  the  subject  in  hand,  her  knowledge 
of  its  scope  and  application  to  life,  together  with  her 
ability  to  arouse  an  enthusiastic  response  in  her  pupils 
often  saves  the  situation  until  adjustments  can  be  made 
by  obtaining  more  material  which  has  an  inherent  ap- 
peal to  the  life  experiences  of  the  child.  Even  under 
the  most  adverse  circumstances,  however,  pupil-moti- 
vation should  be  emphasized,  because,  after  all,  it  is 
largely  through  self-expression  that  self-realization  is 
possible. 

The  value  of  instinctive  tendencies.  "Our  behavior 
consists  largely  of  intelligent  actions  which  rest  on  an 
instinctive  basis.  The  instinctive  tendencies  persist  and 
develop  along  intelligent  lines."1  However,  the  child 
does  not  learn  the  names  and  meanings  of  new  words 
and  numbers  by  means  of  his  instincts,  which  repre- 
sent neural  connections  formed  before  birth.  Learning 
to  read  and  cipher  are  acquired  by  forming  new  neural 
connections,  —  connections  which  have  no  immediate 
motor  expression. 

»Warren,  H.  C.  Element*  of  Human  Psychology  (p.  245). 
Houffhton  Mifflin  Company.  Boston.  1921. 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK  337 

What,  then,  is  the  value  of  these  instinctive  traits 
as  a  means  of  education,  if  the  child  does  not  acquire 
knowledge  by  means  of  them?  Possibly  the  greatest 
value  of  instincts  and  instinctive  tendencies  in  the  learn- 
ing process  is  that  they  exert  a  "motivating,  energiz- 
ing, and  driving"  influence  upon  the  neural  system. 
Often  a  child  might  despair  of  learning  a  new  word 
list  did  he  not  have  an  inborn  tendency  to  emulate, 
to  rival,  and  to  win  social  approval.  These  tendencies 
act  as  an  impelling  influence  which  keeps  him  at  work 
even  when  he  sees  little  immediate  value  in  a  drill. 
The  teacher's  failure  to  use  these  inborn  tendencies  is 
a  failure  to  aid  the  child  in  the  realization  of  himself. 
Some  of  the  instinctive  tendencies  which  the  teacher 
should  utilize  in  reading  work,  especially  in  drill  exer- 
cises, are  imitation,  play,  emulation,  and  rivalry. 

The  tendency  to  imitate.  The  imitative  tendency 
is  much  stronger  and  more  extensive  among  human 
beings  than  among  the  other  species.  The  vast  system 
of  connections  between  the  various  centers  in  the  human 
brain  makes  it  possible  for  the  child,  when  reading,  to 
imitate  good  vocal  expression,  good  gestures,  and  good 
acting  in  dramatization.  The  value  of  this  imitative 
tendency  must  not  be  overlooked.  Poor  oral  readers  are 
often  stimulated  to  better  reading  by  hearing  the  good 
readers  give  an  excellent  oral  rendition  of  some  lesson. 
The  teacher  should  never  allow  a  literary  masterpiece 
to  be  read  poorly.  The  standard  should  be  excellence, 
not  only  for  the  sake  of  doing:  justice  to  the  master- 


338  SILENT  READING 

piece,  but  also  that  the  poor  readers  may  catch  the 
spirit  of  doing  their  work  well  and  naturally. 

The  value  of  the  imitative  tendency  in  silent  reading, 
especially  in  drills,  is  evident.  If  it  is  possible  to 
create  a  "fashion  of  thoroughness  and  rapidity  in  read- 
ing" among  the  majority  of  pupils,  it  affords  a  very 
potent  stimulus  for  raising  the  standards  of  all  the 
others.  Children  in  the  primary  and  intermediate 
grades  at  least,  are  likely  to  enter  very  enthusiastically 
into  any  "fashion"  or  "popular  school  activity." 

The  tendency  to  play.  Play  is  an  instinctive  tend- 
ency or  impulse  which  is  very  strong  in  children.  It 
finds  its  greatest  expression  in  organized  games.  It  is 
through  play  that  the  child  learns  social  adaptation, 
much  of  his  language,  and  the  meaning  of  many  things. 
Play  in  the  form  of  games  affords  him  a  natural  out- 
let for  his  physical  and  mental  energies.  His  native 
impulses,  freedom  of  action,  and  spontaneity  of  verbal 
response  are  too  often  inhibited  by  the  artificial  environ- 
ment of  the  schoolroom.  Since  the  school  should  take 
up  the  work  of  education  where  nature  leaves  off,  it 
is  reasonable  to  infer  that  the  work  in  the  early  grades 
should  be  presented  in  such  a  way  that  this  native 
tendency  to  play  may  function  most  effectively.  For 
example,  the  "Animal  Lesson"  described  below  is 
keenly  enjoyed  by  children  and  habituates  them  to  rapid, 
concentrated,  and  purposeful  reading. 

The   "Animal  Lesson."     After  the   children  have 
learned   to   recognize   the   pictures  of  several  animals. 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK  339 

prepare  flash  cards  bearing  sentences  that  mention 
characteristics  of  each  animal.  The  following  are  typ- 
ical: 

Chases  kitty  up  a  tree. 
Eats  hickory  nuts. 
Makes  sweet  honey. 
Has  a  long  neck. 
Has  a  long  trunk. 
Has  pink  eyes. 
Gives  sweet  milk. 

The  necessary  pictures  of  animals  may  be  cut  from 
magazines,  or  the  children  may  make  silhouettes.  Stand 
the  pictures  on  the  blackboard  ledge.  Flash  the  cards 
describing  the  animals  in  rapid  succession.  Let  the 
pupils  reach  quickly  for  the  pictures  as  the  phrase  cards 
are  flashed.  For  example,  when  the  teacher  flashes  the 
card  bearing  the  phrase,  ' '  eats  hickory  nuts, ' '  the  pupils 
rush  for  the  picture  of  a  squirrel.  When  the  pictures 
are  all  taken,  the  pupil  who  has  the  greatest  number 
is  declared  the  winner. 

The  tendency  to  emulate.  The  impulse  of  emula- 
tion is  exhibited  by  the  child  in  his  expressions,  "  Watch 
me,"  "See  me  do  it."  He  instinctively  likes  to  show 
his  prowess,  his  mastery  over  things.  Nor  is  this  trait 
confined  to  grade  pupils  only.  High-school  and  col- 
lege students  are  often  not  modest  in  announcing  their 
achievements.  The  cardinal  virtue  of  emulation  is  that 
the  child  strives  to  excel  or  to  master  a  situation  be- 
cause of  the  satisfaction  derived  from  the  activity  or 


340  SILENT  READING 

conquest  itself.  He  strives  to  reach  some  goal,  to  sur- 
pass his  own  record.  Rivalry  with  one's  own  record 
of  growth  is  a  commendable  attitude. 

The  practical  application  of  this  instinctive  tendency 
to  emulate  is  seen  when  the  pupil  tabulates  and  charts 
his  daily  or  weekly  records  made  in  the  speed  and 
accuracy  drills  and  tests  in  reading.  Charting  his  daily 
progress  may  be  an  artificial  incentive.  However,  it 
often  stimulates  the  pupil  to  greater  effort,  as  well  as 
to  an  inquiry  as  to  why  he  suffered  lapses  in  some 
of  the  records.  The  impulse  to  excel  the  achievements 
of  others  in  one's  own  class  or  in  other  grades  is  known 
as  rivalry.  Rivalry  is  social ;  it  requires  competitors. 

Often  the  speed  and  accuracy  in  reading  of  pupils 
in  a  certain  grade  is  equal  or  superior  to  that  of  those 
in  -the  grade  immediately  above.  The  authors  recall 
having  a  sixth-grade  class  that  often  made  a  higher 
class  average  in  speed  and  comprehension  than  did  the 
seventh-grade  rivals.  Again,  there  is  such  great  over- 
lapping in  the  reading  abilities  of  pupils  in  the  gr,i<l<'.s 
that  it  is  not  unusual  for  the  brighter  third  of  a  fourth- 
grade  class  to  excel  the  lower  third  or  average  pupils 
of  the  fifth  grade.  Comparing  the  scores  made  by 
pupils  within  a  grade,  or  comparing  the  scores  of  those 
in  consecutive  grades,  will  often  appreciably  motivate 
an  interest  in  reading.  Rivalry  should  always  be  kept 
within  reasonable  limits.  When  ill-feeling  or  unf.-iir 
tactics  develop  among  the  pupils,  the  use  of  rivalry  .is 
an  incentive  is  to  be  condemned. 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK  34^ 

Devices  based  on  inherent  traits.  Focusing  the 
pupil's  attention  upon  reading,  especially  upon  the  drill 
exercises,  is  absolutely  imperative  if  economical  results 
are  to  be  achieved.  The  supplementary  reading  exer- 
cises suggested  in  Chapter  XII  will  yield  returns  largely 
to  the  degree  that  pupil  focalization  is  secured.  But 
how  can  this  group  consciousness  be  assured?  Possibly 
one  of  the  most  effective  devices  is  to  arouse  a  spirit 
of  competition  by  dividing  the  class  into  two  groups, 
of  as  nearly  equal  reading  ability  as  possible.  A  class 
division  in  which  the  girls  are  pitted  against  the  boys 
usually  stimulates  every  member  to  greater  effort.  In 
all  drills  and  tests,  however,  only  one  or  two  of  the 
better  pupils  on  each  side  will  have  a  chance  to  score, 
unless  some  system  of  weighted  points  is  used.  If  there 
is  a  class  of  ten  or  more,  the  first  four  who  get  the 
answer  right  should  receive  credit  for  their  sides.  For 
example,  the  one  who  first  holds  up  his  hand  scores 
four  points  for  his  side  (providing  he  is  right)  ;  the 
second,  three  points;  the  third,  two  points;  the  fourth, 
one  point.  Such  weighting  of  scores  insures  almost 
undivided  attention  and  100  per  cent  participation. 

Arousing1  competition  by  using  tests.  Keen  compe- 
tition in  reading  may  be  aroused  by  comparing  aver- 
age scores  in  rate  and  comprehension  made  by  classes 
of  the  same  grade  throughout  the  whole  school  system. 
Many  supervisors  give  reading  tests  at  stated  intervals, 
then  record  and  chart  the  results  for  each  grade 
throughout  the  system.  Mimeographed  reports  show- 


342  SILENT  READING 

ing  comparative  rankings  are  then  sent  to  all  grades 
concerned.  Such  reports  show  the  average  class  score 
compared  with  the  reading  standard  for  the  grade  and 
with  the  score  of  other  classes.  When  the  spirit  of 
fair  play  and  sympathetic  co-operation  are  present,  such 
scientific  methods  of  supervision  and  standardization  nro 
very  valuable. 

In  one-room  schools  and  small-town  schools  ha  vim: 
but  one  class  in  each  grade,  it  usually  produce!  an 
exhilarating  effect  to  compare  not  only  the  class  aver- 
ages of  one  grade  with  those  of  the  grade  immediately 
above,  but  to  compare  the  scores  of  pupils  in  one  grade 
with  those  of  pupils  in  the  next  one  or  two  grades 
above.  Often  a  few  of  the  better  pupils  in  the  fourth 
grade  make  a  score  in  rate  and  comprehension  higher 
than  that  of  some  of  the  poorer  pupils  in  the  eighth 
grade  who  are  tested  over  the  same  reading  material. 
When  such  friendly  comparisons  are  made,  the  question 
often  becomes  that  of  determining  how  rapidly  and  well 
the  pupils  of  the  respective  grades  really  should  read. 

Standards  of  achievement.  In  this  chapter  we  have 
emphasized  the  necessity  of  having  the  child  focus  on 
what  he  attempts  to  do.  But  upon  what  particular 
thing  shall  he  focus!  Have  we  any  accurate  scientific 
instrument  which  will  demonstrate  to  the  pupil  in  what 
school  achievements  he  is  deficient?  If  such  a  measur- 
ing rod  could  be  devised,  would  it  not  be  of  intrinsic 
value  to  pupil  and  teacher!  They  could  then  co-operate 
in  making  a  drive  upon  the  objectives  not  yet  realized. 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK  343 

The  standardized  test  as  a  measure  of  achievement. 
Standardized  tests  are  based  on  the  principle  of  defi- 
niteness.  They  are  instruments  for  definitely  and  re- 
liably measuring  certain  skills  and  abilities  that  the 
pupil  has  acquired.  If  a  pupil  wishes  to  know  whether 
his  rate  of  reading  and  his  ability  to  comprehend  are 
up  to  standard,  he  may  determine  this  reasonably  well 
by  taking  the  examinations  provided  by  a  few  reading 
tests  and  scales.  He  may  thus  discover  for  himself 
what  detrimental  factors  operate  to  lower  his  score. 
By  means  of  the  standardized  test  he  takes  stock  of 
his  assets  and  liabilities.  Focalization  upon  specific 
aims  now  becomes  possible.  The  principle  of  maximum 
reward  for  minimum  effort  is  able  to  function.  This 
attitude  of  scientific  approach  to  all  problems  and  the 
careful  appraisal  of  them  are  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
pupil  during  his  school  life  and  in  later  years. 

We  may  well  ask  what  values  accrue  to  the  teacher 
from  a  use  of  standardized  tests.  Not  so  long  ago  her 
rating  was  largely  determined  by  the  whims  or  personal 
opinions  of  her  supervisors.  If,  when  an  official  visit 
was  made  to  her  room,  the  pupils  seemed  very  much 
interested  in  their  work,  the  room  cheerful,  and  the 
teacher  artfully  gracious,  she  might  reasonably  expect 
a  mark  of  "good"  or  " superior"  in  the  superintend- 
ent's estimation.  The  fact  that  she  was  superior  in 
teaching  skill,  that  she  helped  pupils  discover  their  diffi- 
culties, and  then  scientifically  remedied  their  shortcom- 
ings, was  no  factor  in  the  appraisal  of  her  ability. 


344  SILENT  READING 

The  determination  of  goals.  Research  in  the  field 
of  education  is  making  it  possible  to  determine  by  means 
of  standardized  tests  of  intelligence  and  achievement, 
the  probable  goals  or  limits  that  each  pupil  should  real- 
ize in  each  subject  for  any  particular  year.  When- 
ever this  theory  comes  to  determine  practice,  then 
teacher,  parent,  and  pupil  will  definitely  know  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  what  achievements  should  be 
forthcoming.  The  pupil's  integrity  of  effort  and  the 
teaching  skill  of  the  teacher  will  thus  be  measured  in 
terms  of  results  produced,  instead  of  in  terms  of  opin- 
ionated statements. 

Monroe  says:1 

The  teacher  is  a  manufacturer.  The  raw  material 
is  the  children.  Textbooks,  school  buildings,  equipment. 
libraries,  and  methods  and  devices  of  teaching  are  the 
"machines"  or  instruments  which  he  uses  to  change 
this  raw  material  into  the  finished  product  or  educated 
boys  and  girls  who  are  prepared  to  do  their  part  in 
the  life  of  the  community,  state,  and  nation.  With- 
out definite  aims  the  teacher  cannot  plan  his  work  eflVf- 
tively.  He  does  not  know,  except  in  an  indefinite  or 
general  way,  what  he  is  to  do.  If  he  has  definite  aims, 
but  no  instruments  for  measuring  his  results  accurately, 
he  cannot  learn  when  he  has  attained  his  aims.  Thus 
he  is  compelled  to  work  in  the  dark.  If  he  makes  in- 
accurate measurements,  but  considers  them  accurat*-. 
he  is  in  a  still  more  serious  situation.  His  efforts  are 
almost  certain  to  be  expended  unwisely. 

The  teacher-made  tests.  There  are  not  enough  re- 
liable standardized  tests  in  any  subject  even  to  consider 

'Monroe.  W.  S.  Measuring  the  Results  of  TeacMnff.  HoupMon 
Mifflin  Company,  Boston.  1918. 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK  345 

their  taking  the  place  of  the  teacher's  quizzes  and  tests. 
Standardized  tests  should  be  used  to  supplement,  but 
never  to  supplant  the  teacher's  examinations. 

Good  testing  is  good  teaching.  If  a  thing  is  worth 
teaching  it  is  worth  testing.  Children  live  in  the  pres- 
ent. Often  some  of  the  essentials  in  a  certain  subject 
become  distasteful  to  the  pupil.  The  business  of  the 
school  is  to  see  that  he  becomes  educated,  even  in  spite 
of  himself.  However,  it  is  possible  to  create  in  most 
pupils  a  desire  to  be  testect  If  the  child  sees  that  the 
test  is  his  means  of  determining  accurately  how  much 
he  has  achieved  on  his  problem,  and  just  what  part 
of  the  job  is  yet  to  be  done,  he  will  be  convinced  that 
this  frequent  test  or  inventory  is  his  ally  instead  of 
his  foe.  He  will  often  demand  a  test  over  an  assign- 
ment before  he  reads  it,  so  as  to  know  definitely  where 
to  direct  his  attack.  Whether  he  plans  to  save  time 
and  energy,  or  to  acquire  as  much  information  as  pos- 
sible with  minimum  effort,  the  test  is  his  most  reliable 
and  scientific  method  of  approach.  He  will  learn  to 
regard  it  as  a  challenge  to  his  preparation.  It  often 
is  the  spirit  in  which  the  test  is  given,  rather  than 
the  test  itself,  that  brings  discord  and  makes  some  test- 
ing of  doubtful  value.  The  value  of  both  the  stand- 
ardized and  teacher-made  tests  as  sources  of  motivating 
power  is  apparent.  These  tests  show  the  pupils  where 
they  are  weak,  and  develop  the  mental  set  necessary 
for  intensive  drill  exercises. 

In  previous  chapters  we  have  said  that  interest  must 


346  SILENT  READING 

be  present  in  drill  work  if  it  is  to  be  effective.  We 
are  now  ready  for  the  other  half  of  the  truth,  namely, 
that  one  must  know  definitely  where  the  drill  is  needed 
and  how  much  of  it  is  necessary.  Too  much  energy 
of  both  pupils  and  teachers  has  too  long  been  dissi- 
pated in  drill  work,  not  so  much  because  interest  was 
wanting,  but  because  there  was  no  focus  upon  the  spe- 
cific needs  of  the  individual  child.  Often  children  are 
annoyed  with  reading,  spelling,  and  arithmetic  exercises 
which  they  have  known  for  days.  It  is  through  the 
test  that  teacher  and  pupil  get  a  correct  estimate  of 
the  values  and  aims  not  yet  accomplished. 

The  value  of  charting  results.  Too  often  both  stand- 
ardized and  teacher-made  tests  are  given  without  mak- 
ing results  known  to  the  pupils.  The  inspiration  and 
interest  which  these  tests  would  naturally  foster  is  lost. 
" After  testing,  what?'*  is  a  very  searching  question 
now  being  asked  by  school  men,  and  especially  by  mem- 
bers of  finance  boards  that  must  arrange  to  pay  the 
bills.  It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  chapter 
to  attempt  an  answer  to  this  question  which  has  occa- 
sioned the  writing  of  some  splendid  books.  Invariably, 
a  close  analysis  of  the  results  of  these  tests  suggests 
a  change  or  broadening  of  the  course  of  study  to  meet 
individual  needs,  as  well  as  a  revaluation  of  several 
elements  both  spiritual  and  material  within  the  school. 
But  there  is  yet  another  inherent  virtue  that  may 
evolve  from  the  testing  of  pupils,  namely,  the  awaken- 
ing and  sustaining  of  a  genuine  interest  for  greater 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK  347 

achievement.  This  may  be  realized  in  several  ways, 
but  the  one  to  be  discussed  here  considers  briefly  the 
efficiency  of  tabulating  and  charting  the  results  of  tests. 

Most  pupils  are  keenly  interested  in  knowing  just 
where  they  stand  with  reference  to  some  standardized 
test  for  their  grade,  or  how  their  standing  compares 
with  that  of  other  pupils  in  their  class.  Graphing  the 
scores  or  achievements  of  pupils  as  an  incentive  to  ex- 
cellence is  psychologically  sound  practice.  It  appeals 
to  the  impulses  of  rivalry,  emulation,  and  social  ap- 
proval. Many  of  the  large  mercantile  houses  send 
weekly  reports  to  their  salesmen  in  the  form  of  graphs, 
which  are  only  comparative  scores  of  sales  made. 

Now  and  then  there  may  be  a  pupil  who  is  not  af- 
fected by  a  daily  comparison  of  his  scores  with  those  of 
his  classmates,  but  there  is  rarely  one  who  is  not  more 
or  less  interested  in  charting  and  studying  his  own 
progress  from  day  to  day,  once  he  makes  the  start  and 
becomes  interested.  Having  the  scores  of  the  whole 
class  charted  weekly  and  compared  with  the  standard 
for  that  grade  enables  the  teacher  to  measure  the  suc- 
cess of  her  own  efforts.  It  is  at  least  one  scientific  de- 
vice which  she  can  employ  to  measure  the  probable 
effectiveness  of  her  methods.  The  charts  are  silent  re- 
minders to  pupils  and  teachers  of  standards  yet  to  be 
attained.  Perhaps  no  better  argument  can  be  urged 
for  charting  pupils'  scores  than  that  each  child  can 
see  his  own  daily  progress,  can  watch  himself  grow. 
It  is  good  practice  to  have  each  student  record  and 


348  SILENT  READING 

chart  his  own  achievement  from  time  to  time.  His 
impulse  to  excel  then  centers  on  surpassing  his  previous 
daily  or  weekly  record,  rather  than  excelling  that  of 
some  classmate. 

Methods  of  charting.  Two  methods  of  charting  are 
advised.  (1)  Making  records  and  charts  for  the  class 
as  a  whole,  (2)  recording  and  charting  each  pupil's 
scores.  The  latter  work  should  be  done  by  the  pupil 
himself  so  that  he  may  study  his  own  progress  and 
become  interested  in  diagnosing  his  own  difficulties. 

Charting  class  progress.  The  group  chart  shows 
the  achievements  or  scores  of  the  whole  class  in  com- 
parison with  the  universal  standard  for  that  particular 
grade.  Pupils  can  see  at  a  glance  what  portion  of 
their  class  is  up  to  average  or  above.  This  chart  also 
enables  them  to  make  comparisons  of  the  work  of  indi- 
viduals. Names  of  pupils  should  not  appear  on  the 
chart  because  those  who  have  low  scores  may  be  need- 
lessly humiliated  by  such  publicity.  Each  child  should 
be  designated  by  a  number,  known  only  to  teacher 
and  pupil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

The  chart  shown  on  the  opposite  page  indicates  the 
comprehension  scores  made  by  a  class  of  seventh-grade 
pupils  in  a  consolidated  school  who  were  measured  by 
the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale:  Form  6.  As 
shown  by  the  vertical  bars,  three  pupils  are  below  the 
standard  for  the  fifth  grade,  eight  below  that  for  the 
sixth  grade,  twelve  below  that  for  the  seventh  grade, 
and  one  is  above  the  seventh-grade  standard. 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK 


349 


o    5 

$   " 
5  60 


58 
S7 
5b 
55 
54 
S3 
52 
51 
50 
49 

47 
46 
45 

44 
43 
42 
41 
40 
39 
38 


37 

Pupils  Number 


I 


I      2      3      4      S     6     7      8      9     10     II     12    13 
FIGURE  5.      (See  the  explanation  on  page  348.) 


350  SILENT  READING 

Making  a  group  chart  once  a  week  is  often  enough 
in  most  schools.  Paper  is  not  necessary.  Often  better 
results  are  obtained  if  a  conspicuous  place  on  the  black- 
board is  set  aside  for  showing  the  weekly  class  stand- 
ing. The  use  of  colored  crayons  gives  such  a  chart 
or  record  a  tone  that  is  worth  while.  Pupils  should 
draw  the  scale  and  help  construct  the  diagram.  Such 
work  is  a  valuable  experience  for  them  and  motivates 
an  interest  in  the  test. 

At  least  two  charts  should  be  made  for  every  group. 
One  should  show,  the  rate  of  reading  and  the  other 
the  comprehension  ^scores.  Standardized  tests  may  be 
used  to  determine  progress,  but  if  those  are  not  avail- 
able the  teacher  may  select  an  appropriate  lesson  and 
have  the  pupils  read  it  through  once,  keeping  check 
on  their  time.  The  teacher  should  give  a  test  on  the 
content  and  take  the  class  average  as  a  standard. 

Individual  progress  during  a  given  period  may  be 
shown  as  the  chart  (Fig.  6)  on  the  opposite  page  in- 
dicates. This  chart  shows  the  comprehension  scores 
made  by  a  class  of  seventh-grade  pupils  measured  by 
the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale:  Form  7.  The 
vertical  black  bars  are  the  same  as  those  shown  in  Fig. 
5.  The  open  bars  represent  the  increased  reading 
ability  of  the  pupils.  In  addition  to  the  regular  as- 
signments these  pupils  were  given  specific  drill  exer- 
cises ten  minutes  daily  for  twenty  days.  Thought- 
getting  drills  were  also  emphasized. 

If  paper  is  used  for  the  chart  it  is  best  to  rule  it 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK 


351 


5 

i- 


62 
61 
60 
59 
58 
57 
56 
55 
54 
53 
52 
51 
50 

>        * 

|-»48 
O        47 

46 
45 
44 

43 

> 

42 

41 
40 

39 


•II  I  I  I  I 


! 


!\ 


38 
37 

Pupils  Number        1       I 
FIGURE  6. 


I 

I 'I 


45      67      8     9    10    II     It    IS 

(See  the  explanation  on  page  350.) 


352  SILENT  READING 

off  into  one-inch  squares.  Show  the  points,  scores,  01 
per  cent  of  achievement  of  the  pupils  on  the  vertical 
axis;  place  the  numbers  representing  the  names  on  the 
horizontal  axis.  The  universal  standard  to  which  the 
grade  should  attain  should  be  indicated  by  a  very  heavy 
horizontal  line  near  the  top  of  the  chart.  (See  Figs. 
5  and  6.) 

Charting  individual  progress.  The  individual  chart 
should  have  as  many  squares  on  the  horizontal  axis 
as  there  are  school  days  in  the  month,  if  the  pupil 
is  to  plot  his  daily  progress.  The  vertical  length  of 
the  chart  will  be  determined  by  the  number  of  pop 
scores,  or  per  cent  allowed  to  each  square.  The  chart 
should  usually  be  long  enough  to  show  the  daily  gains 
or  losses  rather  conspicuously. 

As  already  noted,  each  pupil  becomes  more  interested 
in  his  own  progress  than  that  of  his  classmates.  This 
gives  its  value  to  the  individual  chart.  Often,  in  the 
rural  school,  there  is  only  one  pupil  in  a  grade.  In 
such  cases,  rivalry  within  the  class  is  obviously  im- 
possible. However,  if  the  pupil  becomes  interested  in 
tabulating  and  graphing  his  reading  scores  in  speed 
and  comprehension,  he  will  be  watching  himself  grow. 
He  will  occasionally  be  annoyed  that  his  records  vary 
from  day  to  day,  that  he  even  fails  to  equal  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  preceding  week.  Often  a  spirit  of  genuine 
inquiry  is  stimulated  by  the  pupil's  attempt  to  account 
for  these  plateaus,  peaks,  and  valleys  in  his  reading 
curve.  Although  class  rivalry  may  be  lacking  because 


MOTIVATING  DRILL  WORK 


380 
310 
310 
350 
340 
330 
310 
310 
300 
290 
280 

240 
230 

110 
200 
190 
180 
170 
ILO 
ISO 
140 
130 
12.0 
110 

^ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

1 

1 

K^ 

/ 

/ 

1 

1 

^* 

/ 

' 

/ 

^ 

/ 

^** 

-  —  , 

X 

r-" 

^ 

Days       I     23     45     67     89     10    II     II    13    1^    1$"    IU    11    18    19   20 

FIGURE  7.  An  individual  chart.  The  scores  indicated  repre- 
sent the  progress  made  in  reading  rate  during  a  period  of 
twenty  days  in  which  speed  drills  were  griven  for  ten  minute: 
per  day. 


354  SILENT  READING 

of  lack  of  numbers,  the  most  wholesome  kind  of  rivalry, 
—  an  attempt  to  beat  one's  own  record,  —  may  never- 
theless operate.  Thus  the  results  that  obtain  from  using 
standardized  tests  in  rural  schools  are  quite  as  valu- 
able as  those  that  accrue  when  those  tests  are  used  in 
town  and  city  schools. 

SUMMARY 

1.  A  rich  course  of  study,  a  good  library,  definite  assign- 
ments, broad  reading,  scientific  methods,  and  drill  exer- 
cises produce  effective  study  habits. 

2.  Pupils  must  be  genuinely  interested  and  they  must  know 
where  their  attention  should  be  focused. 

3.  Psychological  doctrine  gives  a  basis  for  drill  work. 

4.  Pupil-motivation  should  be  emphasized  in  all  drills. 

5.  The  teacher  must  not  overlook  the  value  of  instinctive 
tendencies  in  drill  work. 

6.  Teachers  should  use  devices  based  on  inherent  traits. 

7.  Focal ization  upon  specific  needs  arouses  the  child's  in- 
terest 

8.  Teacher-made  tests,  which  are  valuable  and  necessary, 
are  not  second  In  importance  to  standardized  tests. 

0.   Charting  results  creates  interest  in  reading  and  serves 
as  a  diagnostic  device  for  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS 
Alexander,  Carter.     School  Statistics  and  Publicity.     Silver, 

Burdett  and  Company,  Chicago,  1910. 

Colvin,  S    S.  and  Bagley,  W.  C.     Human  Behavior.     (Chap- 
ters 3  .0  11.)     The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City, 

1918. 
Colvin,   S.  S.      The  Learning  Process.      (Chapters  3,   4,   17, 

18,   19.)      The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,   T'i" 
Dewey,  John.     Interest  and  Effort  in  Education.     Houghton 

Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1913. 
Dewey,  John  and  Evelyn.     Schools  of  Tomorrow.    E.  P.  Dut- 

ton  and  Company,  New  York  City. 


APPENDIX 


A.      PAMPHLETS  SUITABLE  FOR  USE  AS  READING   MATERIAL 

The  following  pamphlets  are  suitable  for  use  as  reading 
material  as  outlined  in  the  plans  given  on  pages  246-249. 
In  asking  for  a  supply  of  this  material  teachers  should 
write  directly  to  the  sources  indicated.  Publications  of  the 
United  States  Government  may  be  obtained  by  addressing 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  United  States  Bureau  of 
Engraving  and  Printing,  Washington,  D.  C. 

FARM  BULLETINS    (Issued   by   the   United   States   Department 

of  Agriculture.) 
No. 

535  Sugar  and  Its  Value  as  Food 

565  Corn  Meal  as  a  Food:  Ways  of  Using  It 

567  Sugar-beet  Growing  Under  Irrigation 

602  The  Production    of    Clean    Milk 

606  The  Collection     and     Preservation     of     Insects     and 

Other  Material  in  the  Study  of  Agriculture 

607  The  Farm   Kitchen   as   a  Workshop 
609    Bird  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them 
630    Common  Birds  Useful  to   the  Farmer 

637  The  Grasshopper  Problem  and  Alfalfa  Culture 

653  Honey  and  Its  Use  in  the  Home 

660  Weeds.  How  to  Control  Them 

670  Field  Mice  as  Farm  and  Orchard  Pests 

691  Grasshoppers — Sugar    Beets    and    Truck    Crops 

697  Duck  Raising 

702  Rabbits  in  Relation  to  Trees  and  Crops 

712  School   Lunches 

734  Fly  Traps  and  Their  Operation 

744  The  Preservative  Treatment  of  Farm   Timbers 

747  Grasshoppers   and   Their  Control 

808  How  to  Select  Foods:     I.  What    the    Body    Needs 


358  SILENT  READING 

817    How  to  Select  Foods:  II.  Cereal   Foods 
824     Foods  Rich   in  Protein 

BULLETINS  OF  THE  CHILDREN'S  BUREAU  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR 
No. 
8    Infant  Care  (Care  of  Children  Scries  No.  2.) 

Baby-saving     Campaigns     (Infant     Mortality     Series 
No.  1.) 

35  Milk:    Indispensable  for  Children    (Care  of  Children 

Series  No.  4.) 

36  Save  100,000  Babies:   Get  a  Square  Deal  for  Children 
47    The  Public   Health   Nurse:    How  She  Helps  to   Keep 

Babies  Well 

BULLETINS  OF  THE  CONNECTICUT  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  HEALTH 

(Hartford,  Connecticut) 
How  to  Avoid  Tuberculosis 
Diphtheria 
Scarlet  Fever 

BULLETINS   OF  THE   VIRGINIA   STATE   DEPARTMENT   OF   HEALTH 

(Richmond,  Virginia) 
No. 

5  The  Sanitary  School 

6  Bluebird  Day 

7  First  Aid 
19    Fresh  Air 

27    The  Best  Weapon  Against  Flies 
36    The  Drinking  Cup 

BULLETINS    OF    THE    INTERNATIONAL    HARVESTER    COMPANY'S 
AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  DEPARTMENT  (Chicago) 
Humus:   The  Life  of  the  Soil 
Helps  for  Wash   Day 
Cold-pack  Canning 
We  Must  Feed  Ourselves 
The  Story  of  Bread 

B.      BOOKS  SUGGESTED  FOR   USE  IN  GRADES  I,  II.   AND  HI 
The   following  list   of  titles   was   made  by   members  of  a 


APPENDIX  359 

class  in  the  College  of  Education  at  Des  Moines  University, 
who  were  working  on  the  problem,  "Appropriate  Reading 
Material  for  the  Primary  Grades."  Although  the  list  is  not, 
of  course,  exhaustive,  it  includes  such  titles  as  are  recom- 
mended for  a  place  in  the  reading  library  of  the  first, 
second,  and  third  grades.  Teachers  will  find  that  the  books 
mentioned  contain  interesting,  wholesome,  and  practical  ma- 
terial suitable  for  the  ordinary  library.  In  several  instances 
a  title  appears  in  more  than  one  list  because  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  book  is  suitable  for  use  in  several  grades. 
The  numbers  in  parentheses  following  the  titles  correspond 
to  those  appearing  on  pages  376-378,  and  indicate  the  names 
and  addresses  of  the  publishing  firms  from  which  the  respec- 
tive books  may  be  obtained. 

ORADQ  1 

Alexander,  Georgia:  Child  Classics  (9) 

Baker  and  Thorndike:   Every  Day  Classics  (34) 

Brooke,  Leslie  L.:  Johnny  Croiv's  Party  (62) 

Johnny  Crow's  Garden  (62) 
Burchill,  Georgine:   Story  Steps  (51) 

Progressive  Road  to  Reading  (51) 
Caldecott,  R.:   Panjandrum  Picture  Book   (62) 

Hey  Diddle  Picture  Book  (62) 
Coe  and  Christy:  Story  Hour  Reader  (2) 

Story  Hour  Primer  (2) 
Craik,  G.  M.:  Bow-Bow  and  Mew-Mew   (35) 

So-Fat  and  Mew-Mew  (35) 

Dressel,  H.  and  others:  The  New  Barnes  Readers  (6) 
Dyer  and  Brady:   The  Merrill  Primer  (35) 

Merrill  First  Reader  (35) 
Edson  and  Laing:  Edson-Laing  Primer  (41) 

Edson-Laing  First  Reader  (47) 
El  son  and  Runkel:  The  Elson  Primer  (48) 

The  Elson  First  Reader  (48) 
Field,  W.  T.:   The  Field  Primer  (21) 
Firman  and  Maltby:  The  Winston  Primer  (59) 

The  Winston  First  Reader   (59) 


360  SILENT  READING 

Fox.  F.  M.:  Indian  Primer  (20) 

Mother  Goose  Primer  (42) 

Adventures  of  Sonny  Bear  (43) 
Free  and  Treadwell:  Reading-Literature  Primer  (46) 

Reading-Literature  First  Reader  (46) 
Greenway,  K.:  Marigold  Garden  (62) 

Under  the  Window  (62) 
Grover  and  Chutter:  Art-Literature  (4) 
McManus  and  Haaren:  Natural-Method  Readers:  Primer  (49) 

Natural-Method  Readers:  First  Reader  (49) 
Potter,  Beatrix:   Tales  of  Peter  Rabbit  (57) 

Little  Black  Sambo  (44) 

Raymond,  MacDonald,  and  Alden:  Why  the  Chimes  Rang  (9) 
Searson  and  Martin:  Primer  (55) 

First  Reader  (55) 
Serl  and  Evans:    Work-a~dny  Doings  (51) 

Work-a-day  Doings  on  the  Farm  (51) 
Silvester  and  Peters:  Happy  Hour  Stories  (2) 
Young  and  Field:  Literary  Readers  (21) 

GRADE    II 

Adelberg,  Otilla:   Clean  Peter  (ft) 
Bannermann,   Helen:    Little  Black  Sambo    (44) 
Bayliss,  Clara:  Lolamt,  the  Little  Cliff  Dweller  (41) 
Bigham,  Madge  A.:   Mother  Goose  Village  (43) 

Merry  Animal  Tales  (tft) 
Blaisdell,  M.  F.:   Tommy  Tinker's  Book  (28) 
Brown,  A.  F.:   The  Loncsotuest  Doll  (Iff) 
Burchill,    Georgine:     Progressive    Road    to    Rending:    Book 

n  (si) 

Burgess,  Thornton:  Old  Mother  West  Wind  (tS) 

Grandfather's  Frog  (28) 

Johnny  Chuck  (98} 

Coe  and  Christy:   Story  Hour  Reader  (2) 
Homing,  T.  O.:   Little  Indian  Folk   (5S) 

Little  Red  People  (53) 
Dopp,  K.:  The  Tree  Dicellers  (43) 

Early  Cave  Mm   (43) 


APPENDIX 

Dressel,  H.  and  others:  The  Neiv  Barnes  Readers  (6) 
Edson  and  Laing:  Edson-Laing  Second  Reader  (47) 
Faulkner,  Georgene:   Italian  Fairy  Tales  (13) 

Old  Russian  Tales  (13) 

Firman  and  Maltby:   The  Winston  Readers  (59) 
Free  and  Treadwell:   Reading-Literature  Second  Reader  (46') 
Green  way,  Kate:   Marigold  Garden  (62) 

Pied   Piper    (62) 
Grover,  Eulalie:   Kittens  and  Cats  (25) 

The  Overall  Boys  in  Switzerland   (43) 

The  Sunl)onnet  Babies  in  Holland  (43) 
Hall,  Jennie:  Weavers  and  other  Workers  (43) 
Lang,  A.:  The  Princess  on  the  Glass  Hill  (29) 

Jack  the  Giant  Killer   (29) 

Jack  and  the  Bean  Stalk  (29) 

Lefevre,  Felicite:    The  Cock,  the  Mouse,  and  the  Hen  (1) 
Lucia,  Rose:   Peter  and  Polly  in  Summer  (2) 
McManus  and  Haaren:  Natural-Method  Readers:  Book  II  (49) 
Morcomb,  Margaret:   Red  Feather  Stories  (31) 
Perkins,  Lucy  F.:   The  Eskimo  Tivins   (25) 

The  Japanese  Twins   (25) 
Potter,  Beatrix:    Talcs  of  Peter  Rabbit   (57) 
Pyle,  K.:  In  the  Green  Forest  (28) 

Careless  Jane  (17) 

Seachrest,  E.:  Greek  Photo  Plays  (43) 
Searson  and  Martin:   Second  Reader  (55) 
Serl,  Emma:  In  Fableland  (51) 
Weimer,  Teresa:   Chats  in  the  Zoo  (43) 
White,  E.  O.:  Brothers  in  Fur  (25) 
Williston,  T.  P.:   Japanese  Fairy  Tales   (43) 
Young  and  Field:  Literary  Reader:  Book  II  (21) 

GRADE    III 

Bailey,  Carolyn  S.:  For  the  Children's  Hour  (15) 
Baldwin,  J.:  Fifty  Famous  Stories  Retold  (2) 

Hero  Tales  Told  in  School   (49) 

Fairy  Stories  and  Fables   (2) 
Baum,  Frank:    The  Wizard  of  Oz   (44) 


362  SILENT  READING 

Bighain,  Madge  A.:   Merry  Animal  Tales  (28) 
Blaisdell,  M.  F.:   Polly  and  Dolly   (28) 
Brooks,  D.:  Stories  of  the  Red  Children  (19) 
Brown,  A.  P.:  The  Christinas  Angel  (25) 

The  Lonesomest  Doll  (25) 
Bryce,  Catherine:  That's  Why  Stories  (S7) 
Burgess,  Thornton:   Orand father's  Frog  (28) 

Adventures  of  Reddy  Fox  (28) 

Adventures  of  Paddy  the  Beaver  (M) 

Adventures  of  Old  Mr.  Toad  (28) 

Bedtime  Story-book  (28) 

Mother  West  Wind's  Why  Stories  (28) 

Mrs.  Peter  Rabbit  (28) 

Old  Mother  West  Wind    (28) 

Old  Mother  West  Wind's  Animal  Stories   (28) 

Old  Mother  West  Wind's  Neighbors   (28) 
Carpenter,  F.  O.:  Around  the  World  with  the  Children  (2) 

Stories  Pictures  Tell:  Books  II  and  III  (43) 
Carroll,  Lewis:   Through  the  Looking  Glass  (1) 
Coe  and  Christy:  Story  Hour  Reader  (2) 
Davidson   and  Anderson:    Lincoln   Third  Reader   (26) 
Doheny,  M.  A.:    A   Dramatic  Reader  for  the  Third  School 

Year  (28) 

Dut ton,  M.  B.:   In  Field  and  Pasture  (2) 
Eggleston,  E.:  Great  Americans  for  Little  Americans  (2) 
Faulkner,  Georgene:  Old  English  Nursery  Tales  Retold  (13) 

Christmas  Stories  (13) 

Firman  and  Maltby:  Winston  Third  Reader  (59) 
Free  and  Tread  well:  Read  ing- Literature  Series:  Book  III 
Grimm,  J.  K.  and  W.  K:  Fairy  Tales  (1) 
Hardy,  M.  E.:  Nature's  Wonder  Lore  (43) 
Husted,  Mary  H.:   Stories  of  Indian  Children  (41) 
Ingelow,  Jean:  Mopsa  the  Fairy  (17) 
Kipling,  Rudyard:   Just-So  Stories   (16) 
Lang,  A.:  Princess  on  the  Glass  Hill  (29) 

The  Sleeping  Beaut ti  (29) 

Pretty  Goldilocks  (29) 

The  Snow  Man    (ft) 


APPENDIX  353 

Lucia,  Rose:  Peter  and  Polly  in  Autumn  (2) 

Peter  and  Polly  in  Spring  (2) 

Peter  and  Polly  in  Summer  (2) 

Peter  and  Polly  in  Winter  (2) 

McManus  and  Haaren:  Natural-Method  Reader:  Book  III  (49) 
McMurry,  L.  B.:   Classic  Stories  for  Little  Ones  (41) 
Malory,  Sir  Thomas:  Story  of  King  Arthur's  Knights  (34) 

Morcomb,  Margaret:   Red  Feather  Stories   (31) 
Muller,  Mary:  Little  People  of  Japan  (20) 
Mullock,  Maud:   The  Little  Lame  Prince  (27) 

The  Adventures  of  a  Brownie  (27) 
Olmstead,  E.  G.:  Ned  and  Nan  in  Holland  (46) 
Peary,  J.  B.:   Children  of  the  Arctic  (53) 
Perkins,  Lucy  F.:  The  Snow  Baby  (25) 

The  Japanese   Twins    (25) 

The  Eskimo  Twins   (25) 

The  Puritan   Twins    (25) 
Pyle,  K.:    The  Christmas  Angel   (28) 

As  the  Goose  Flies  (28) 

The  Counterpane  Fairy    (17) 

Ruskin,  John:   The  King  of  the  Golden  River  (21) 
Scudder,  H.  E.:   Faoles  and  Folk  Stories   (25) 

George  Washington    (25) 
Seachrest,  E.:   Greek  Photo  Plays   (43) 

Egyptian  Photo  Plays    (43) 
Searson  and  Martin:    Third  Reader   (55) 
Shillig,    E.    E.:    The   Four   Wonders:   Cotton,    Wool,    Linen, 

Silk   (43) 

Smith,  M.  E.:  Holland  Stories  (43) 
Stevenson,  R.  L.:   Child's  Garden  of  Verses  (49) 
Terry,  A.  G.:   Tales  from  Far  and  Near  (46) 

C.      BOOKS  SUGGESTED   FOR   USE  IN   GRADES  IV  AND  V 

The  following  list  of  titles,  compiled  by  Mary  L.  Perham, 

appeared  in  the  December  (1921)   number  of  the  Elementary 

School  Journal.     Some   titles   which   originally   appeared    in 

this  list  have  been  included  in  other  lists  of  this  Appendix 


364  SILENT  READING 

and  are  consequently  omitted  here.    Concerning  this  list  the 
compiler  says: 

The  following  lists  of  books  are  the  result  of  an  atteuipt 
during  the  past  two  years  to  discover  the  worth-while  books 
that  children  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  actually  enjoy 
reading.  Each  list  provides  for  the  difference  in  taste  and 
age  found  in  the  average  group  of  forty  or  fifty  children  of 
the  grades  for  which  they  are  indicated.  Only  those  books 
which  the  children  themselves  have  expressed  pleasure  in 
reading  are  included. 

GRADE    IV 

Bailey,  Margery:    Seven  Pea*  in  the  Pod   (28) 

Beson,  Henry:    Firelight  Fairy  Book   (5) 

Blaisdell,  A.  P.:  American  History  for  Little  Folks  (28) 

Brown,  A.  F.:  Star  Jewels  (tf) 

Brown  and  Bell:    Tales  of  the  Red  Children   (3) 

Bryce,  Catherine  T.:   Folklore  from  Foreign  tends   (37) 

Fables  from.  Afar  (37) 
Bryce,  Marion:   Nancy  in  the  Woods  (61) 
Carpenter,  F.  O.:   Around  the  World  with   the  Children   (2) 
Carroll,  Lewis:    Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonderland   (34) 

Through    the   Looking   Glass    (34) 
Chambers,  R.  H.:   Hide  and  Seek  in  Forest  Land  (3) 
Coin  in.  Padralc:   Boy  Who  Knew  What  the  Birds  Said   (34) 
Craik,  Mrs.  D.  M.:   Little  iMmc  Prince   (14) 
Curtin,   Jeremiah:    Fairy  Tales  of  Eastern  Europe   (32) 
Dickinson,  A.  D.:    Children's  Book  of  Thanksgiving  Stories 

(16) 

Dun  ton,  Larkin:    Glimpses  of  the  World   (51) 
Farmer,  Florence  V.:  Boy  and  Girl  Heroes  (34) 
Ghosh,  Prince:  Wonder*  of  the  Jungle  (24) 
Gibson,  C.  C.:   In  Eastern  Wonderlands   (28) 
Hall,   Jennie:    Viking  Tales   (43) 
Hal  lock,  E.  B.:   In  Those  Days   (34) 
Hopkins,  W.  J.:  Sand  Man:  His  Farm  Stories  (39) 

Sand  Man:  His  Sea  Stories  (39) 
Howells,  W.   D.:    Christmas  Every  Day   (23) 
Jacobs,  J.    (Editor):   Celtic  Fairy  Tales   (42) 

English  Fairy  Tales  (42) 


APPENDIX  365 

Johnson,  Clifton:    Oak-tree  Fairy  Book   (28) 

Birch-tree  Fairy  Book    (28) 

Elm-tree  Fairy  Book  (28) 
Judd,   Mary   C.:    Classic  Myths    (43) 
Jusdon,  K.  B.:    Old  Crow  Stories   (28) 
Lagerlof,   Selma:    Wonderful  Adventures  of  Nils    (16) 
Lucia,   Rose:    Stories  of  American  Discoverers    (2) 
Mace,  W.  H.:  Primary  History  (43) 
Martin  and  Davis:   Firebrands   (28) 
McDonald  and  Dalrymple:    Une  San  in  Japan  (28) 

Marta  in  Holland    (28) 

Joseph  in  Spain    (28) 

Hassan  in  Egypt    (28) 

Betty  in  Canada   (28) 

Donald  in  Scotland  (28) 

Gerda  in  Sweden   (28) 

McMurry  and  Cook:    Songs  of  Tree-top  and  Meadow    (41) 
Morley,  M.  W.:    Little  Mitchell   (33) 
Moseley,  M.  W.:   Donkey  John  of  the  Toy  Valley   (33) 
Millets,  Lenore:    Sunshine  Lands  of  Europe   (60) 
Nixon-Roulet,  M.  F.:    Our  Australian  Cousin   (39) 
Otis,  James:   Mary  of  Plymouth  (2) 
Page,  Thomas  Nelson:    Captured  Santa  Glaus  (49) 
Perkins,  F.  O.    (Editor):   Peter  Pan   (51) 
Porter,  B.  C.:    Wonder  Oak   (18) 
Pratt,  M.  L.:   Legends  of  the  Red  Children  (2) 
Pyle,  Howard:    Twilight  Land   (23) 

Garden  Behind  the  Moon   (49) 
Pyle,  Katherine:  In  the  Green  Forest   (28) 

Christmas  Angel   (28) 

Counterpane  Fairy   (17) 
Richards,   L.  E.:    Pig  Brother   (28) 
Scandlin,  Christiana:   Hans  the  Eskimo   (51) 
Schwartz,  J.  A.:   Little  Star  Gazers   (53) 
Sherman,  F.  D.:  Little  Folk  Lyrics  (25) 
Shillig,  Elnora  E.:    Four  Wonders    (43) 
Shute  and  Dunton:  Land  of  Song:  Book  I  (51) 
Smith,  E.  Boyd:  Farm  Book   (25) 


366  SILENT  READING 

Smith  and  Hazel  tine:    Christmas  in  Legend  and  Story   (SO) 

Snell,  Roy  J.:   Little  White  Fox  (28) 

Stone  and  Fickett:   Days  and  Deeds  a  Hundred  Years  Ago 

(24) 

Everyday  Life  in  the  Colonies  (24) 
Usher,  R.  G.:   Stories  of  the  Pilgrims  for  Children  (34) 
Wade,  Mary  H.:   Our  Norwegian  Cousin  (39) 

Coming  of  the  White  Men  (58) 
White,  E.  O.:   Little  Oirl  of  Long  Ago   (25) 
Wiggins  and  Smith:  Posy  Ring  (16) 

Magic    Casements    (16) 
Wilmot-Buxton,  E.  M.:  Stories  of  Norse  Heroes  (It) 

GRADE    V 

Aanrnd,  Hans:   Lisbeth  Long  frock   (21) 
Alden,  R.  M.:  Why  the  Chimes  Rang  (9) 
Asbjornsen,  P.  C.:  Fairy  Tales  of  the  Far  North  (67) 
Baldwin,  James:    The  Old  Northwest   (2) 
Blaisdell  and  Ball:   Story  of  American  History  (21) 

Pioneers  of  America  (28) 

Heroic  Deeds  of  American  Sailors   (28) 
Branch,  M.  L.  B.:  Quid,  the  Cavern  King  (50) 
Brooks,  E.  S.:   True  Story  of  Benjamin  Franklin  (SO) 

True  Story  of  Lincoln  (30) 
Brown,  Frances:   The  Wonderful  Chair  (24) 
Browne, *G.  W.:   Two  American  Boys  in  Hawaii  (71) 
Bryant,  S.  C.:  I  am  an  American  (25) 
Bullen,  F.  T.:   Cruise  of  the  Cachalot  (66) 
Burgess,  Thornton:  Burgess  Animal  Book  (2S) 

Bird  Book  for  Children    (28) 
Burnett,  F.  H.:   Little  Lord  Fauntleroy  (49) 

Little  Princess   (49) 

Hurt,  M.  E.:   Poems  Every  Child  Should  Know   (16) 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.  and  A.  H.:  Africa  (S4) 

Europe   (34) 

North  America   (34) 

South  America  (34) 
Coe,  F.  E.:  Makers  of  the  Nation  (2) 

Founders  of  Our  Country   (2) 


APPENDIX  367 

Colum,   Padraic:    Adventures   of   Odysseus   and  the   Fall  of 

Troy   (34) 
Curtis,  Alice  T.:  Little  Maid  of  Bunker  Hill   (40) 

Little  Maid  of  Massachusetts  Colony  (40) 

Little  Maid  of  Narragansett  Bay   (40) 

Little  Maid  of  Old  Philadelphia   (40) 

Little  Maid  of  Provincetown  (40) 
Davis,  J.  W.  (Editor):  Pinocchio  Under  the  Sea  (S4) 
Deming  and  Bemis:   Stories  of  Patriotism  (25) 
Dickinson,   H.  W.   and   A.   D.:    Children's  Book  of  Patriotic 

Stories    (16) 
Eastman,  C.  A.  and  E.  G.:    Smoky  Day's  Wigwam  Evenings 

(28) 

Eastman,  E.  G.:  Indian  Legends  Retold  (28) 
French,  Allen:  Heroes  of  Iceland  (28) 

Story  of  Rolf  (28) 

Ghosh,  Prince:  Wonders  of  the  Jungle:  Books  I  and  II  (24) 
Gordy,  W.  F.:  American  Leaders  and  Heroes  (49) 
Grenfell,  W.  T.:  Adrift  on  the  Ice  (25) 
Griffith,  A.  M.:   Stars  and  Their  Stories  (63) 
Haaren  and  Poland:  Famous  Men  of  Modern  Times  (2) 
Hallock,  E.  B.:  In  Those  Days  (34) 

Hancock,  M.  S.:   Children  in  History  (Early  Times)    (28) 
Hawkins,  C.  J.:    Little  Red  Doe   (28) 
Hawthorne,  Nathaniel:    Wonder  Book   (25) 
Hudson,  W.  H.:   Little  Boy  Lost   (70) 
Hyde,  L.  S.:  Favorite  Greek  Myths  (24) 
Johnson,  Clifton:   Fir-tree  Fairy  Book   (28) 
Kaler,  J.  O.:  The  Life  Savers  (17) 
Lang,  A.:    Green  Fairy  Book  (29) 

Blue  Fairy  Book   (29) 

Larkin,  Shute,  and  Duncan:   Land  of  Song:  Book  II   (51) 
Lefferts,  Walter:  American  Leaders:  Books  I  and  II  (27) 
Lofting,  Hugh:   Story  of  Dr.  Doolittle  (53) 
Martin  and  Davis:   Firebrands   (28) 
McFee,  Inez:  Boys  and  Girls  of  Many  Lands   (12) 
McMurry,  C.  A.:  Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  (34) 
Mills,  E.  A.:   Story  of  a  Thousand  Year  Pine   (25) 


368  SILENT  READING 

Molesworth,  M.  L.  S.:   Cuckoo  Clock  (27) 

Christmas  Tree  Land  (34) 

Carrots  (34) 

Nixon- Roulet,   M.    F.:    Our   Brazilian    Cousin    (S9) 
Olcott,  F.  J.:   Arabian  Nights  (63) 

Story-telling  Poem*   (25) 
Ouida:    Moufflon   (27) 

A  Dog  of  Flanders  (27) 
Page,  T.  N.:   Two  Little  Confederates  (49) 
Paine,  Albert  B.:   Arkansaw  Bear  (1) 
Parkman,  Ifc.  R.:  Heroes  of  Today  (11) 
Perkins,  L.  F.:   Mexican  Twins  (25) 

French  Twins  (25) 

Perkins,  F.  O.  (Editor):  Children's  Bluebird  (51) 
Pyle,  Howard:    The  Wonderful  Clock  (23) 
Riis,  Jacob:  Hero  Talcs  of  the  Far  North  (34) 
Schultz,  J.  W.:   Sinopah,  the  Indian  Boy  (25) 

Quest  of  the  Fish-dog  Skin  (25) 
Schwartz,  Julia:   Wilderness  Babies  (28) 
Seton-Thompson,  E.:   Wild  Animals  J  Have  Known  (49) 
Sewell,  Anna:  Black  Beauty  (64) 
Sherman,  F.  D.:   Little  Folk  Lyrics  (25) 
Sidney,  Margaret:   Five  Little  Peppers  (SO) 
Smith,  M.  P..  W.:  Stories  of  Old  Deer  field  (28) 

Jolly  Good  Times  on  a  Farm  (28) 

Jolly  Good  Times  at  Hackmatack  (28) 

Boy  Captive  in  Canada  (28) 
Spyri,  Johanna:  J/oni,  the  Goat  Boy  (21) 

Hcimatlos   (21) 

Stein,  Evaleen:   Gabriel  and  the  Hour  Book  (39) 
Stimpson,  M.  S.:   Child's  Book  of  American  Biography   (28) 
Stocking,  J.  T.:  The  City  That  Never  Was  Reached  (65) 
Stone  and  Fickett:  Everyday  Life  in  the  Colonies  (24) 

Days  and  Deeds  a  Hundred  Years  Ago   (24) 
Tappan,  E.  M.:   Hobiti  Hood:  His  Book  (28) 

Little.  Book  of  the  Flag  (25) 

American  Hero  Stories   (25) 
Tileston,  Mary  W.:   Child's  Harvest  of  Verse  (28) 


APPENDIX  369 

Wade,  Mary:   Twin  Travelers  in  South  America  (58) 

Leaders  to  Liberty  (28) 
Wesselhoeft,  L.  F.:   Jack,  the  Fire  Dog  (28) 

Laddie,  the  House  Dog  (28) 
White,  S.  K:  Magic  Forest  (34) 
Whittier,  J.  G.:   Child  Life  (25) 
Yard,  T.  S.:   Top  of  the  Continent  (49) 

D.       SUPPLEMENTARY    READING    MATERIAL    FOR    GRADES    IV 

TO  VIII 

The  following  titles  are  suggestive  of  a  type  of  reading 
material  which  gives  much  information  on  several  of  the 
content  subjects  usually  studied  in  grades  four  to  eight, 
inclusive.  This  list  is  part  of  a  bibliography  prepared  by 
a  group  of  superintendents  and  grade  principals  who  were 
working  with  the  authors  on  the  problem,  "Supplementary 
Reading  Materials  for  the  Intermediate  and  Upper  Grades." 
Many  valuable  suggestions  were  derived  from  Bobbitt's 
article,  "Reading  in  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Indianapolis: 
Part  V.  —  The  Reading  Materials"1  and  from  Hartman's 
book,  The  Child  and  His  School.2 

HISTORY  AND    CIVICS 

Austin,  O.  P.:   Uncle  Sam's  Secrets  (3) 
Baldwin,  James:  'Old  Stories  of  the  East   (2) 

Fifty  Famous  Stories  Retold  (2) 

Old  Greek  Stories  Retold  (2) 

Bayliss,  C.  H.:  Lolami,  the  Little  Cliff  Dweller  (41) 
Beard  and  Bagley:  History  of  American  People  (34) 
Chase,  A.:   Children  of  the  Wigioam  (19) 
Church,  A.  J.:   Stories  of  the  Old  World  (21) 
Coffin,  C.  C.:   Old  Times  in  the  Colonies  (23) 
Button,  M.  B.:  Little  Stories  of  Germany  (2) 
Eastman,  C.  A.:  Indian  Boyhood  (16) 

Indian  Child  Life   (28) 

Wigwam  Evenings   (28) 

'Bobbitt,  Franklin.  "Reading  in  the  elementary  schools  of  In- 
dianapolis :  Part  V.  —  The  reading  materials."  Elementary  School 
Journal,  Vol.  19,  (May)  1919. 

2Hartman,  Gertrude.  The  Child  and  His  School.  E.  P.  Button 
and  Company,  New  York  City,  1922. 


370  SILENT  READING 

Eggleston,  E.:  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure  (2) 
Finnemore,    A.    J.:    Story   of   Robin   Hood   and    His    Merry 

Men    (34) 

Frye,  Jane:  The  Young  American  Readers  (59) 
Gordy,  W.  F.:   Stories  of  American  Explorers  (49) 

American  Beginnings  in  Europe   (49) 
Griffls,  W.  E.:   Young  People's  History  of  Holland  (25) 
Guerber,  H.  A.:  Story  of  the  Chosen  People  (2) 

Story  of  the  Thirteen  Colonies  (2) 

Story  of  the  English  (2) 

Story  of  France  (2) 
Hall,  J.:  Men  of  Old  Greece  (28) 
Hart,  A.  B.:   Colonial  Children  (34) 
Hawthorne,   Nathaniel:    Grandfather's   Chair   (25) 
Johnson  and  Spencer:  Ireland's  Story  (25) 
Kingsley,  Charles:  The  Heroes  (17) 
tang,  Andrew:  True  Story-book  (29) 

Red  True  Story-book  (29) 
Longfellow,  H.  W.:  Miles  Standish  (12) 

Evangeline  (9) 

Mclntyre,  M.  A.:   The  Cave  Boy  of  the  Age  of  Stone  (S) 
McMurry,  C.  A.:  Pioneer  History  Series  (34) 
Moore,  C.  W.:   Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  for  Boys  and  Girls 

(25) 
Morris,  Charles:  Historical  Tales:  Greek  (27) 

Historical  Tales:  Roman  (27) 

Historical  Tales:  Russian  (27) 

Heroes  of  Progress  in  America  (27) 

Home  Life  in  All  Lands:  Vol.  II  (27) 
Parkinan,  Francis:  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (28) 

Oregon  Trail  (84) 

Rivals  for  America  (28) 

Reynolds,  M.  J.:  How  Man  Conquered  Nature  (34) 
Roosevelt,  Theodore:   Winning  of  the  West  (42) 
Tappan,  Eva  M.:  Story  of  the  Roman  People  (25) 

American  Hero  Stories  (25) 

Terry,   A.   G.    (Editor):    History  Stories  of  Other  Lands,  6 
(46) 


APPENDIX  37J 

Waterloo,  S.:  The  Story  of  Ab  (16) 

Wilson  and  Driggs:   The  White  Indian  Boy  (60) 

GEOGRAPHY 

Allen,    N.    B.:    Geographical   and   Industrial    Studies:   South 

America  (21) 
Bishop    and    Keller:    Commercial   and   Industrial    Geography 

(21) 

Blaich,  Lydia  R.:   Three  Industrial  Nations  (2) 
Brigham,  A.  P.:  From  Trail  to  Railway  (21) 
Sullen,  F.:  Cruise  of  the  Cachalot  (3) 
Butler,  E.  C.:   Our  Little  Mexican  Cousin  (2) 
Carpenter,  F.  G.:   How  the  World  Is  Clothed  (2) 

How  the  World  Is  Housed  (2) 

How  the  World  Is  Fed  (2) 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.:  How  We  Are  Clothed  (34) 

How  We  Are  Fed  (34) 

How  We  Are  Sheltered  (34) 

How  We  Trade  (34) 

Darwin,  C.  R.:  Voyage  of  the  Beagle  (3) 
Dasent,  G.  W.:  East  o'  the  Sun  and  West  o'  the  Moon  (42) 
Dodge,  M.  M.:  The  Land  of  Pluck  (11) 
Doubleday,  R.:  Year  in  a  Yawl  (16) 
Finnemore,  John:  Peeps  at  Many  Lands:  England  (34) 

Peeps  at  Many  Lands:  Switzerland  (34) 

Peeps  at  Many  Lands:  Japan  (34) 
Jonckheere,  R.:  When  I  was  a  Boy  in  Belgium  (30) 
Jungman,  B.:  Peeps  at  Many  Lands:  Holland  (34) 
Krout,  M.  H.:  Alice's  Visit  to  the  Haicaiian  Islands  (2) 
McDonald  and  Dalrymple:    Little  People  Everywhere   Series 

(28) 

Mitchell,  A.  F.:  Paz  and  PaUo   (60) 
Muller,  M.:  Elsbeth:  A  Story  of  German  Home  Life  (17) 
Peary,  J.:   Children  of  the  Arctic  (53) 
Price,  O.  W.:  The  Land  We  Live  In  (52) 
Rocheleau,  W.  F.:  Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry  (19) 
Schwatka,  F.:  Children  of  the  Cold  (19) 
Shaw,  R.  E.:  Big  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands  (2) 


372  SILENT  READING 

Spyri,  Johanna:  Heidi  (2) 

Stockton,  F.  R.:  Personally  Conducted  (49) 

Thomson,  M.  P.:  Peeps  at  Many  Lands:  Denmark  (34) 

COMMERCE   AND   INDUSTRY 

Allen,  N.  B.:  Industrial  Studies:  Europe  (21) 
Bassett,  S.  W.:  The  Story  of  Sugar  (40) 

The  Story  of  Wool  (40) 

The  Story  of  Porcelain  (40) 

The  Story  of  Glass  (40) 

Bogart,  Ernest:  Economic  History  of  the  United  States 
Bolton,  Sarah  K.:   Lives  of  Girls  "Who  Became  Famous   (12) 

Lives  of  Poor  Boys  Who  Became  Famous  (12) 

Famous  Men  of  Science  (12) 
Burns,  E.  E.:  Story  of  Great  Inventions  (23) 
Butler,  P.  O.:  The  Story  of  Paper  Making  (10) 
Bond,  Alexander  R.:  With  Men  Who  Do  Things  (S6) 
Brooks,  E.  C.:  The  Story  of  Cotton  (43) 
Carpenter,  P.  O.:  Food*  and  Their  Uses  (49) 
Casson,  H.  N.:  History  of  the  Telephone  (33) 
Chase  and  Clow:   Stories  of  Industry:  Vol.  II  (19) 
Cooke,  A*  O.:  A  Day  with  Leather  Workers  (38) 

A  Visit  to  a  Cotton  Mill  (38) 

A  Visit  to  a  Coal  Mine  (38) 

A  Day  in  a  Shipuard  (38) 
Doubleday,  Russel:  Stories  of  Inventors  (16) 
Dunham,  E.:  Jogging  Around  the  World  (53) 
DuPuy,  W.  A.:  Uncle  Sam's  Modem  Miracle*  (53) 
Forman,  S.  E.:  Stories  of  Useful  Inventions  (11) 
Grey,  Z.:  The  Young  Forester  (23) 
Hall,  G.  S.:  The  Story  of  a  Sand  Pile  (6) 
Howe,  W.  D.:  Making  a  Capital  in  the  Wilderness  (9) 
Keller   and    Bishop:    Commercial   and   Industrial    Geography 

(21) 

Kinne  and  Cooley:  Shelter  and  Clothing  (34) 
Kipling,  Rudyard:  Captains  Courageous  (16) 
Kirby,  M.  and  E.:  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard  (19) 
lAne,  M.  A.:  Industries  of  Today  (21) 
Laut,  A.  C.:  The  Story  of  the  Trapper  (3) 


APPENDIX  373 

Martin,  E.  A.:   The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal  (S) 

Morgan,  J.  H.:  Boy  Electrician  (27) 

Mowry,  A.  M.:   Captains  of  Industry  (51) 

Parker,  E.  P.:  Petroleum  and  Its  Uses  (Series  C  1918)    (68) 

Rocheleau,  W.  F.:  Great  American  Industries:  Vol.  II  (20) 

Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry  (19) 
Samuel,  I.:   The  Story  of  Iron  (40) 

The  Story  of  Gold  and  Silver  (40) 
Smith,  J.  R.:  Iron  and  Steel  (Series  C)   (68) 
Tappan,  E.  M.:  Makers  of  Many  Things  (25) 

.Travellers  and  Travelings  (25) 

Diggers  in  the  Earth  (25) 

The  Farmer  and  His  Friends  (25) 
Towne,  E.  C.:  The  Story  of  Money  (14) 
Tower,  W.  S.:   The  Story  of 'Oil  (3) 
Warman,  C.  Y.:  The  Story  of  the  Railroad  (8) 

E.   LITERARY  SELECTIONS:   FOR  BOYS  AND  GIRLS  FROM 
10  TO  15  YEARS  OF  AGE 

It  is  believed  that  the  books  listed  on  this  and  the  fol- 
lowing pages  will  be  found  as  interesting  to  boys  and  girls 
as  the  vicious  dime  novel  and  at  the  same  time  afford 
them  clean,  inspiring,  and  wholesome  reading  material. 
The  list  was  selected  from  Books  for  Older  Boys  and  Girls 
edited  by  Ruth  G.  Hopkins,  Head  of  Children's  Department, 
Bridgeport  (Connecticut)  Public  Library.  The  authors  are 
deeply  indebted  to  Miss  Linn  Jones,  Head  of  the  Childrens' 
Library  of  the  city  of  Des  Moines,  for  her  co-operation  in 
selecting  those  books  which  are  most  in  demand  by  the 
boys  and  girls  of  that  city. 

This  list  is  suggestive  of  the  type  of  reading  material 
that  is  safe  and  wholesome  for  older  children  to  read. 
Teachers  and  parents  who  wish  to  add  interesting  selections 
to  the  children's  library  can  obtain  wholesome  information 
by  consulting  The  Bookshelf  for  Boys  and  Girls,  published 
by  R.  R.  Bowker,  New  York  City,  and  by  reading  Clara 
Whitehill  Hunt's  book,  What  Snail  We  Read  to  the  Children, 
published  by  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston. 


374  SILENT  READING 

Alcott,  Louisa  May:  Jack  and  Jill  (28) 

Little  Women  (28) 

Aldrich,  T.  B.:  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy  (25) 
Altsheler,  J.  A.:     The  Horsemen  of  the  Plains  (66) 

The  Last  of  the  Chiefs  (66) 
Ames,  J.  B.:  Torrance  from  Texas  (11) 
Amers,  J.  B.:     The  Mystery  of  Ram  Island  (11) 

Under  Boy  Scout  Colors  (66) 
Ashmun,  M.  E.:  Heart  of  Isabel  Carleton  (34) 

Isabel  Carleton  at  Home  (84) 
Baker,  Olaf:  Shasta  of  the  Wolves  (69) 
Barbour,  R.  H.:  For  the  Honor  of  the  School  (66) 
Bates,  K.  L.:  In  Sunny  Spain  (17) 
Bond,  A.  R.:  Pick,  Shovel,  and  Pluck  (36) 
Brooks,  E.  S.:  Master  of  the  Strong  Hearts  (17) 
Brooks,  Noah:  The  Boy  Emigrants  (49) 
Brown,  A.  P.:  In  the  Days  of  Giants  (25) 
Brown,  Helen  D.:   Tiro  College  Girls  (25) 
Brown,  Edna  A.:  When  Max  Came  (30) 
Brownell,  Agnes:  Thankful  Spicers  (49) 
Clemens,  S.  L.  (Mark  Twain):  Prince  and  the  Pauper  (23) 

Adventures  of  Huckleberry  Finn  (23) 
Collins,  A.  F.:  The  Book  of  Stars  (3) 
Colura,  Padraic:   Children  of  Odin  (34) 

Adventures  of  Odysseus  and  Tales  of  Troy  (34) 
Coolidge,  Susan:    What  Katy  Did  at  School   (28) 
Cooper,  J.  P.:  The  Spy  (42) 
Daulton,  Agnes:  From  Sioux  to  Susan  (11) 
Deland,  E.  D.:  Oaklcigh  (23) 
Dix,  Beulah  M.:  Betty-Bide- At-Home  (63) 
Doubleday,  R.:  Cattle  Ranch  to  College  (66) 
Drysdale,  William:  The  Fast  Mail  (58) 
DuChaillu,  Paul:  Wild  Life  under  the  Equator  (23) 
Eggleston,  G.  C.:  T^ong  Knives  (30) 

Bale  Marked  Circle  X  (30) 
French,  H.  W.:  Lance  of  Kanana  (30) 
French,  Allen:  Story  of  Rolf  and  the  Viking's  Bow  (28) 
Gaines,  Ruth:   Treasure  Floicer  (17) 


APPENDIX 


375 


Gregor,  Elmer  R.:   Red  Arrow  (23) 

Running  Fox   (3) 

Hagedorn,  H.:  Boys'  Life  of  Roosevelt  (23) 
Hale,  Lucretia:  Peterkin  Papers  (25) 
Hale,  Edward  E.:  Man  Without  a  Country  (28) 
Hall,  A.:  Carpentry  and  Mechanics  for  Boys  (30) 
Hawes,  C.  B.:  The  Mutineers  (5) 
Heyliger,  Wm.:   Don  Strong  of  the  Wolf  Patrol  (66)  » 

Off  Side  (3) 

High  Benton  (3) 
Hill,  F.  T.:   On  the  Trail  of  Washington  (3) 

On  the  Trail  of  Grant  and  Lee  (3) 
Hurd,    Marian    K,    and   Jean   B.   Wilson:    When   She    Came 

Home  from  College  (25) 

Inman,  Col.  H.:  The  Ranch  on  the  Oxhide  (66) 
Jackson,  Helen  H.:  Nelly's  Silver  Mine  (28) 
Jacobs,  C.  D.:  Texas  Blue  Bonnet  (39) 
Keeler,    Harriet:    Our   Native    Trees    and   Hoic    to    Identify 

Them  (49) 

Macdonald,  G.:  At  the  Back  of  the  North  Wind  (27) 
Macdonald,  G.:   Princess  and  the  Goolin  (27) 

Princess  and  Cur  die  (27) 
Masefield,  J.:  Martin  Hyde  (28) 
Meadowcroft,  Wm.:  Boys1  Life  of  Edison  (23) 
Meigs,  Cornelia:  Fool  of  Stars  (34) 
Miller,  O.  T.:   The  First  Book  of  Birds  (25) 

The  Second  Book  of  Birds   (25) 
Moffett,  C.:   Careers  of  Danger  and  Daring  (11) 
Montgomery,  L.  M.:  Anne  of  Green  Gables  (39) 
Morgan,  A.  P.:  Boys'  Book  of  Science  and  Construction  (SO) 
Page,  T.  N.:  Two  Little  Confederates  (49) 
Paine,  A.  B.:  Boys'  Life  of  Mark  Ticain  (23)- 
Perkins,  L.  F.:   Cornelia  (25) 
Pyle,  Howard:  Garden  Behind  the  Moon  (49) 

Jack  Ballister's  Fortunes  (11) 

Men  of  Iron  (23) 

Otto  of  the  Silver  Hand  (49) 

Merry  Adventures  of  Robin  Hood  (49) 


376  SILENT  READING 

Rankin,  C.  W.:  Dandelion  Cottage  (63) 
Rogers,  J.  E.:  The  Tree  Guide  (16) 
Rold-Smith,  N.  G.:  Faerie  Queen  (17) 
Rolt-Wheeter,  F.:  The  Boy  with  the  U.  S.  Foresters  (SO) 
Roosevelt,  Theodore:  Stories  of  the  Or  eat  West  (11) 
Sabin,  E.  L.:  Buffalo  Bill  and  the  Overland  Trail  (27) 
Schultz;  J.  W.:  The  War  Trail  Fort  (25) 
Schultz,  J.  W.:  Running  Eagle,  the  Warrior  Girl  (25) 
Lone  BulVs  Mistake  (66) 
Rising  Wolf,  the  White  Blackfoot  (25) 
With  the  Indians  in  the  Rockies  (25) 
Shafer,  D.  C.:  Harper's  Beginning  Electricity  (23) 
Stevenson,  B.  E.:   Tommy  Remington's  Battle  (66) 
Stevenson,  R.  L.:  Treasure  Island  (S) 
Tolman,  A.  W.:  Jim  Spurling,  Fisherman  (23) 
Toinlison,  E.  T.:   Scouting  \oith  Daniel  Boonc  (96) 

Scouting  Kith  Kit  Carson  (66) 
Vaile,  Charlotte:  Orcutt  Girls  (58) 
Wallace,  Dillon:   Ungava  £ofr  (66) 

Troop  One  of  the  I^abrador  (45) 
Washington,  B.  T.:  Up  from  Slavery  (67) 
XwilKineyer,  Dikken:  What  Happened  to  Inger  Johannc  (30) 

F.      UST  OP  PUBLISHERS 

Books  mentioned  in  the  bibliographies  on  the  prccr  !ini: 
pages  may  be  obtained  from  the  publishers  listed  below. 
Teachers  can  obtain  full  information  regarding  any  title 
by  asking  for  a  catalogue  and  descriptive  literature  which 
publishers  are  always  glad  to  supply.  A  perusal  of  pub- 
lishers' catalogues  is  a  good  means  of  acquainting  oneself 
with  the  annual  production  of  books  for  children. 

1.  Henry  Altemus  and  Company      •  Philadelphia 

2.  American  Book  Company  New  York  City 

3.  D.  Appleton  and  Company  New  York  City 

4.  Atkinson,  Mentzer  and  Company  Chicago 

5.  Atlantic  Monthly  Press      .  Boston 

6.  A.  S.  Barnes  and  Company  New  York  City 


APPENDIX 


377 


7.  The  Beckley-Cardy  Company 

8.  Bloch  Publishing  Company 

9.  The  Bobbs-Merrill  Company 

10.  Butler  Paper  Company 

11.  The  Century  Company 

12.  T.  Y.  Crowell  and  Company 

13.  Daughaday  and  Company 

14.  Dillingham  and  Company 

15.  M.  A.  Donohue  and  Company 

16.  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company 

17.  E.  P.  Dutton  and  Company 

18.  Eaton  and  Mains   (Abingdon  Press) 

19.  Educational  Publishing  Company 

20.  A.  Flanagan  and  Company 

21.  Ginn  and  Company 

22.  Griffith  and  Rowland  Press  (Ameri- 

can  Baptist   Publication    Society) 

23.  Harper  and  Brothers 

24.  D.  C.  Heath  and  Company 

25.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company 

26.  Laurel  Book  Company 

27.  J.  B.  Lippincott  and  Company 

28.  Little,  Brown  and  Company 

29.  Longmans,  Green  and  Company 

30.  Lothrop,  Lee  and  Shepard  Company 

31.  Lyons  and  Carnahan 

32.  Root.  M.  McBride  and  Company 

33.  A.   C.   McClurg  and  Company 

34.  The  Macmillan  Company 

35.  Chas.  E.  Merrill  and  Company 

36.  Munn  and  Company 

37.  Newson  and  Company 

38.  Oxford  University  Press    (American 

Branch) 

39.  The  Page  Company 

40.  Penn  Publishing  Company 

41.  Public  School  Publishing  Company 

42.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 


Chicago 

New  York  City 

Indianapolis 

Chicago 

New  York  City 

New  York  City 

Chicago 

New  York  City 

Chicago 

harden  City,  N.  Y 

New  York  City 

Chicago 

Boston 

Chicago 

Boston 

Philadelphia 

New  York  City 

Boston 

Boston 

Chicago 

Philadelphia 

Boston 

New  York  City 

Boston 

Chicago 

New  York  City 

Chicago 

New  York  City 

New  York  City 

New  York  City 

New  York  City 

New  York  City 
Boston 
Philadelphia 
Bloomington,  111. 
New  York  City 


378 


SILENT  READING 


43.  Rand,  McNally  and  Company 

44.  The  Reilly  and  Lee  Company 

45.  F.  H.  Re  veil  and  Company 

46.  Row,  Peterson  and  Company 

47.  Benj.  H.  Sanborn  and  Company 

48.  Scott,  Foresman  and  Company 

49.  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons 

50.  Sherman,  French  and  Company 

51.  Silver,  Burdett  and  Company 

52.  Small,  Maynard  and  Company 

53.  Frederick  A.  Stokes  and  Company 

54.  E.  Thompson  and  Company 

55.  University  Publishing  Company 

56.  Frederick  Warne  and  C-mpany 

57.  Albert  Whitman  and  Company 

58.  W.  A.  Wilde  and  Company 

59.  J.  C.  Winston  and  Company 

60.  World  Book  Company 

61.  John  Lane  Company 

62.  Frederick  K.  Warne  and  Company 

63.  Henry  Holt  and  Company 

64.  George  W.  Jacobs  and  Company 

65.  Pilgrim  Press 

66.  Orosset  and  Dunlap 

67.  A.  L.  Burt  and  Company 

68.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 

69.  Dodd,  Mead,  and  Company 

70.  Alfred  A.  Knopf 

71.  Dana  Estes  Company 


Chicago 

Chicago 

New  York  City 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Chicago 

New  York  City 

Boston 

Chicago 

Boston 

New  York  City 

Northport,  N.  Y. 

Lincoln,  Nebraska 

New  York  City 

Chicago 

Boston 

Philadelphia 

Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

New  York  City 

New  York  CKy 

New  York  City 

Philadelphia 

Boston 

New  York  City 

New  York  City 

Washington,  D.  C. 

New  York  City 

New  York  City 

Boston 


INDEX 


(The  numbers  refer  to  pages.) 


ABC  method,  40,  100;  de- 
fects of,  101. 

Action  method,  209;  value  of, 
210;  defects  of,  210. 

Adenoids,  effect  of,  on  read- 
ing ability,  130. 

Aims  of  silent  reading1,  23. 

Anderson,  C.  J.,  cited,  117,  122, 
136,  137;  experiment,  151. 

Arithmetic,    clarified,    321-7. 

Articulation  in  reading,  12, 
13,  14. 

Assignment,  importance  of, 
for  retention,  96,  288. 

Attention-span,   105. 

Betts,    G.   H.,   quoted,   22. 
Bird,  G.    E.,   experiment,   95. 
Brown,      H.      A.,      cited,      211; 

quoted,   227. 

Bryan,    W.    L.,    cited,    21. 
Buckingham,    R.    B.,    quoted, 

176. 

Burgess,  M.  A.,  cited,  125,  150. 
Buswell,   G.   T.,    cited,    144. 

Carelessness  and  carefulness, 
150;  how  overcome,  165. 

Charting,  results  of  compre- 
hension tests,  274-6,  340; 
value  of,  346-8;  methods  of, 
349;  class  progress,  349;  in- 
dividual progress,  351. 

Charts,   use   of,  '216,    335. 

Class  standards,  devising,  120. 

Colvin,  C.,  cited,   62. 


Combination   method,   19. 

Competition,    341,   353. 

Completion    tests,    172. 

Comprehension,  test  of,  22; 
importance  of,  24,  45;  neg- 
lect of  student,  45;  average, 
57;  repetition  in,  58;  evi- 
dence regarding,  61;  im- 
provement in,  61-6;  effect 
of  lip-reading  on,  110;  drills 
in,  for  poor  readers,  112; 
vaJu'e  of  measurement  of, 
165;  measuring,  165-71; 
methods  of  measurement  of, 
171. 

Controlled   practice,   63. 

Currier,   L.   B.,    cited,    225. 

Dearborn,  W.  F.,  quoted,  14, 
39;  cited,  37,  41,  105,  145. 

Delayed    recall,    89. 

Devices  for  classroom  work : 
Reading  between  lines,  312: 
filling  in,  313. 

Dramatization,  value  of,  243, 
327-31. 

Drills,  need  for  word,  234: 
conducting,  234;  action- 
word,  236;  preposition,  236: 
object,  237;  opposites,  238 
sign  drills,  238;  familiar 
combination,  239;  speed. 
240;  action-phrase,  240;  ac- 
tion-sentence, 241;  games 
as,  242;  dramatization,  243: 
excursion,  244;  snissing- 


379 


380 


INDEX 


word,  245;  true-false,  246; 
current  topic,  247;  hygiene 
lesson,  248;  children's  diet, 
249;  riddle,  250;  nursery- 
rhyme,  252;  phrase  and  sen- 
tence, 253;  picture-answer, 
254;  construction  work, 
255;  bulletin  board,  257;  ex- 
ercise, 289-95;  psychological 
view  of,  334;  pupil-motiva- 
tion of,  335;  teacher-moti- 
vation of,  336. 
Duguid,  O.  C.,  cited.  225. 

Earhart,  L.  B.,  experiment,  78- 

81. 

Ebert  and  Neumann,  cited,  87. 
Ebbinghaus,  cited,  86. 
Emulation,    339. 
Environmental        factors       i  n 

speed,  42. 
Errors,     common     in     reading, 


Experiments  In  comprehen- 
sion. 53,  54.  62.  65:  In  or- 
ganization. 71.  72,  77:  in  re- 
tention, 86-7. 

Eyesight    defects    129. 

Eye-span,    39.   101. 

Eye-voice   span.   145. 

Feeble-minded    children.    135. 
Pinch,   C.    E.,    experiment,    72: 

cited.    149. 

Fixation-points.    37.   41,   101-5. 
Flash-card    exercises.    136. 
Focalizatlon,  secured.  341.  943. 
Folk-tale    lessons,    220-4. 
Foreign  children.   146. 

Gates,    A.     I.,    experiment    on 

true-false   tests.   182. 
Germane    (C.    E.    and    E.    O.). 

experiments       on      thought- 

getting,  54;  on  organization. 

71:    on    testing    and    recall. 


93;  in  lip-reading  and 
speed,  109. 

Gilliland,  A.   K.,   cited,   33. 

Gist,   A.  S.,   quoted    172. 

Gray,  W.  8.,  cited,  115,  124, 
137,  139.  154;  oral-reading 
test,  117,  138;  experiment 
for  speed  in  reading.  154. 

Green.  M.  O..  experiment,  61-2. 

Hawley.  W.  E.,  cited.  134. 
Hearing  defects.  130. 
Horn,    Ernest,    cited.    134. 
Hub-and-spoke    device,    303. 
Hygiene  in   speed,  40. 

Imagery  in  reading.  21. 
Imitation.    337. 
Immediate    recall.   89. 

Judd,  C.  H..  cited.  42.   108. 

Kerfoot.  J.  B..  quoted.   158. 
Key  paragraph.  301. 
Key  sentence.   299. 
Klapper.   Paul,    quoted.   148. 

Lesson  assignment  and  or- 
ganization. 70. 

Library  books,   133.   198. 

Line   length   In   textbooks.   41. 

Lip-reading,  109:  experiment 
on,  110:  suggested  treat- 
ment of.  111:  overcoming, 
108. 

Lyman.  R.  L..  cited.  157.  160: 
plan  for  silent  reading,  307. 

Malnutrition,    effect    of.    130. 
Mann.    Horace,   quoted.    46. 
Marker,    use    of,    143.    222. 
Material     for    silent     readine. 

186,    195,    201.    206,    262.    269. 

280:    use    of,   280:    advanced. 

315. 

McCall.  W.    A.,  quoted.    181. 
Mendenhall.  W.  L..   cited.   177. 


INDEX 


381 


Merton,  E.,  cited,  117,  122,  136, 

137,   151. 
Methods   of   teaching   reading, 

100. 
Monroe,  W.  6.,  quoted,  29,  348; 

reading      scale      of,      187; 

Standardized      Silent  -  reading 

Test,   64,    166. 
Motor    habits    in    reading,    39, 

10*. 

Nursery  rhymes  in  beginning 
reading,  215-20;  value  of, 
220;  defects  in  use,  220. 

O'Brien,  J.  A.,  cited,  13,  145, 
334. 

Oral  reading,  drawback  to 
method,  11;  value  of,  15-18; 
method  of  teaching,  18; 
combined  with  silent  read- 
ing, 19,  20;  reasons  for 
teaching,  21;  overemphasis 
of,  106-144;  psychology  of, 
106;  tests  of  (Gray),  117; 
habits  in,  127. 

Organization,  importance  of, 
24,  68,  '69,  113;  psychological 
view  of,  68;  sociological 
view  of,  69:  inability  in,  69; 
how  to  teach,  77,  82,  113; 
value  of,  77;  retention 
through,  98;  lesson  on,  271. 

Outlines  in  organization,  69, 
71,  72,  73,  82. 

Pageants,  327;  fire-preven- 
tion, 328-31. 

Pamphlets  for  silent  reading, 
200. 

Parker,    S.  C.,    quoted,   156. 

Peet  and  Dearborn  Progress 
Test  in  Arithmetic,  326. 

Perception-unit,    105,    145. 

Permanency  of  retention  se- 
cured, 97. 

Peterson,  J.,  experiment  of, 
87. 


Phonics,  method  for,  102; 
value  of,  136,  137;  overem- 
phasis of,  139;  method  in 
beginning  reading,  225; 
time  for  introduction  of, 
226;  deferred  training  in, 
229. 

Physical  defects,  128-30. 

Physical  inspection  of  school 
children,  129. 

Physiological  factors  in 
speed,  37. 

Pintner,    Rudolph,    cited,    13. 

Play    instinct   utilized,   338. 

Pointing    to    words,    143. 

Presentation  of  beginning 
reading,  208;  methods  of, 
211-25 

Pressey,  S.  L.  and  L.  C.,  ex- 
periment of,  126;  cited,  15G. 
186. 

Problem  of  the  reading 
teacher,  52. 

Project  method  for  beginning 
readers,  211-3;  value  and 
defects  of,  214. 

Psychological  factors  in 
speed,  42. 

Psychology  of  oral  reading, 
106-7. 

Pupil-motivation,    92,    335. 

Pupil  organization,   82. 

Quantz,     J.      O.,     quoted,      13; 

cited,    109. 
Question  method  for  measure* 

ment,   174;   for  drill,  273. 

Rapid  reading,   value  of,  36. 

Reading,  abilities  compared, 
156,  261,  298;  attitudes,  156: 
defects,  128-40,  143,  144,  145. 
146,  147,  150,  151:  reading 
difficulties,  116;  illustration 
of  lesson  in,  47. 

Reading  rate,  variation  of, 
28. 


382 


INDEX 


Recall  value,   88. 

Recognition  tests,  173. 

Reference  work,  importance 
of,  147-9. 

Remedial  work,  for  bad  study 
habits,  75;  Importance  of, 
115:  examples  of.  116;  prep- 
aration for,  117;  planning. 
122;  tests  for.  123-8;  In  vo- 
cabulary enlargement,  132; 
for  subnormal  children.  134; 
for  word  recognition.  136: 
for  comprehension.  140;  for 
word  pointing.  143;  for  nar- 
row perception-unit.  146:  to 
extend  use  of  reference 
books,  147;  for  careless 
reading.  150;  In  oral  read- 
Ing,  151;  to  overcome  bad 
study  habits.  159:  explained. 
163. 

Repetitions.   151. 

Reproduction   method.   171. 

Retention.  Importance  of.  24. 
86;  experiments  in.  86.  88. 
97:  Increased.  97;  teaching 
pupil*.  113:  measurement. 
Importance  of.  165;  training 
for.  278. 

Sandwlck,  R.  L..  cited.  128. 

Scales.   124-6. 

Schmidt  W.  A.,  quoted.  12.  13. 
105.  107:  cited.  145. 

"Signpost    paragraph,"    84. 

Silent  reading,  aim*  of.  22; 
Importance  of.  11:  method 
of  training  primary  pupils 
in.  107:  tests,  how  made. 
122:  controlled.  231:  prin- 
ciples observed  In  teaching. 
260:  Individual  training  In. 
261:  material  for.  262.  269. 
2*o.  31*:  class  dl*cu**lon  of. 
263:  drill  In.  by  question 
method.  27«:  project  work 
for,  878:  In  intermediate 


grades.  280;  Illustrative  les- 
sons in,  282-6;  English  class 
work  and,  306;  Ly  man's 
plan  for,  307;  outline  for 
seventh  -  grade.  308  -  10; 
arithmetic  for,  322. 

Single   reading,   results  of,   55. 

Skillful  reading  accomplish- 
ments, 160. 

Smith,   Bertha  M..   cited,   124. 

Speed  In  reading.  Importance 
of.  27.  35.  36;  physiological 
factors  In.  37;  hygienic  fac- 
tors in,  40:  psychological 
factors  In,  42;  environ- 
mental factors  In.  42;  meth- 
ods of  obtaining.  299-305. 

Speed  drill,  dangers  of.  30; 
values  of.  32:  for  poor  read- 
ers. 112. 

Standardisation.   120. 

Standardized  tests.  117: 
Stone's  extension.  64:  rea- 
soning test  In  arithmetic. 
824;  as  measure  of  achieve, 
menu  343. 

Stone.  C.  W..  and  Colvln.  C.. 
experiment.  62. 

Story  method  for  beginning 
readers.  214. 

Study   efficiency.  €8. 

Study  habit*.  159.  259.  297. 
298.  318. 

Subnormal   children.   134. 

Subject-matter  o  f  reader*. 
113. 

Substitution.  151. 

Summaries  In  organization. 
83. 

Summary-outline,  71. 

Teacher-made   tests.    119.    S44. 
Teacher-motivation.    335. 
Teeth,  defeat*   of.  ISO. 
Testing    before    reading.    90-3. 
Tests.    53.    54.    55.    56.    61.    62. 
64.   72.   75.   97.   117.   119.   120: 


INDEX 


383 


how  to  make  silent-read- 
ing, 122,  123,  127,  136;  value 
of,  166;  nature  of,  166;  com- 
pletion, 172;  recognition, 
173;  question  method,  174, 
176;  scoring  of,  180,  178; 
true-false,  178,  181;  reading- 
tests,  288;  adaptation  of, 
289,  305;  Stone's  tests  in 
arithmetic,  375,  326;  compe- 
titive, 343;  standardized, 
343;  teacher-made,  344. 

Theisen,    W.   W.,    cited,    127. 

Thorndike,  E.  !>.,  experiment 
of,  161-3. 

Thought-getting,    45/58. 

True-false  test  for  compre- 
hension, 178,  181;  advan- 
tages of,  183. 

Type,  size  of,  41. 


Vocabulary  limit,  effects  of, 
on  reading,  126,  130. 

Waldman,  Bessie  P.,  cited, 
174. 

Waldo,   C.    D.,   cited,   124. 

Watkins,    E.,   cited,    226. 

Wilson,  E.,  experiment  of, 
18-9-93;  results  of,  193. 

Word,  importance  of  analysis 
of,  131;  importance  of 
building  of,  131;  focus.  144: 
method,  103-5;  criticism  of 
method,  105;  recognition 
value,  135. 

Yoakam,  G.  A.,  experiment  cf, 
53,  88,  90;  cited,  53,  54,  88, 
90;  quoted,  92. 

Zirbes,  Laura,  cited,  13?;  re- 
port, 189. 


51HC 


LD  21-lOOm  8/34 


YB  05055 


601394 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


